I, that am rudely stamp’d, and want love’s majesty
To strut before a wanton ambling nymph;
I, that am curtail’d of this fair proportion,
Cheated of feature by dissembling nature,
Deformed, unfinish’d, sent before my time
Into this breathing world, scarce half made up,
And that so lamely and unfashionable
That dogs bark at me as I halt by them;
Why, I, in this weak piping time of peace,
Have no delight to pass away the time,
Unless to spy my shadow in the sun
And descant on mine own deformity:
And therefore, since I cannot prove a lover,
To entertain these fair well-spoken days,
I am determined to prove a villain
And hate the idle pleasures of these days.
Plots have I laid, inductions dangerous,
By drunken prophecies, libels and dreams,
To set my brother Clarence and the king
In deadly hate the one against the other:
And if King Edward be as true and just
As I am subtle, false and treacherous,
This day should Clarence closely be mew’d up,
About a prophecy, which says that <G>
Of Edward’s heirs the murderer shall be.
Dive, thoughts, down to my soul: here
Clarence comes.”
“Go, tread the path that thou shalt ne’er return. Simple, plain Clarence! I do love thee so, That I will shortly send thy soul to heaven, If heaven will take the present at our hands.”
“Now, by Saint Paul, this news is bad indeed. O, he hath kept an evil diet long, And overmuch consumed his royal person: ‘Tis very grievous to be thought upon. What, is he in his bed?”
“…if I fall not in my deep intent, Clarence hath not another day to live: Which done, God take King Edward to his mercy, And leave the world for me to bustle in! For then I’ll marry Warwick’s youngest daughter. What though I kill’d her husband and her father? The readiest way to make the wench amends Is to become her husband and her father: The which will I; not all so much for love As for another secret close intent, By marrying her which I must reach unto. But yet I run before my horse to market: Clarence still breathes; Edward still lives and reigns: When they are gone, then must I count my gains.”
“If ever he have child, abortive be it, Prodigious, and untimely brought to light, Whose ugly and unnatural aspect May fright the hopeful mother at the view; And that be heir to his unhappiness! If ever he have wife, let her he made A miserable by the death of him As I am made by my poor lord and thee!”
“Foul devil, for God’s sake, hence, and trouble us not; For thou hast made the happy earth thy hell, Fill’d it with cursing cries and deep exclaims. If thou delight to view thy heinous deeds, Behold this pattern of thy butcheries. O, gentlemen, see, see! dead Henry’s wounds Open their congeal’d mouths and bleed afresh! Blush, Blush, thou lump of foul deformity; For ‘tis thy presence that exhales this blood From cold and empty veins, where no blood dwells; Thy deed, inhuman and unnatural, Provokes this deluge most unnatural. O God, which this blood madest, revenge his death! O earth, which this blood drink’st revenge his death! Either heaven with lightning strike the murderer dead, Or earth, gape open wide and eat him quick, As thou dost swallow up this good king’s blood Which his hell-govern’d arm hath butchered!”
GLOUCESTER
I did not kill your husband.
LADY ANNE
Why, then he is alive.
GLOUCESTER
Nay, he is dead; and slain by Edward’s hand.
LADY ANNE
In thy foul throat thou liest: Queen Margaret saw Thy murderous falchion smoking in his blood; The which thou once didst bend against her breast, But that thy brothers beat aside the point.
GLOUCESTER
I was provoked by her slanderous tongue, which laid their guilt upon my guiltless shoulders.
LADY ANNE
Thou wast provoked by thy bloody mind. Which never dreamt on aught but butcheries: Didst thou not kill this king?
GLOUCESTER
I grant ye.
LADY ANNE
Dost grant me, hedgehog? then, God grant me too Thou mayst be damned for that wicked deed! O, he was gentle, mild, and virtuous!
GLOUCESTER
The fitter for the King of heaven, that hath him.
LADY ANNE
He is in heaven, where thou shalt never come.
GLOUCESTER
Let him thank me, that holp to send him thither; For he was fitter for that place than earth.
LADY ANNE
And thou unfit for any place but hell.
GLOUCESTER
Yes, one place else, if you will hear me name it.
LADY ANNE
Some dungeon.
GLOUCESTER
Your bed-chamber.
LADY ANNE
Ill rest betide the chamber where thou liest!
GLOUCESTER
So will it, madam till I lie with you.
LADY ANNE
I hope so.
GLOUCESTER
I know so. But, gentle Lady Anne, To leave this keen encounter of our wits, And fall somewhat into a slower method, Is not the causer of the timeless deaths Of these Plantagenets, Henry and Edward, As blameful as the executioner?
LADY ANNE
Thou art the cause, and most accursed effect.
GLOUCESTER
Your beauty was the cause of that effect; Your beauty: which did haunt me in my sleep To undertake the death of all the world, So I might live one hour in your sweet bosom.
LADY ANNE
If I thought that, I tell thee, homicide, These nails should rend that beauty from my cheeks.
GLOUCESTER
These eyes could never endure sweet beauty’s wreck; You should not blemish it, if I stood by: As all the world is cheered by the sun, So I by that; it is my day, my life.
LADY ANNE
Black night o’ershade thy day, and death thy life!
GLOUCESTER
Curse not thyself, fair creature thou art both.
LADY ANNE
I would I were, to be revenged on thee.
GLOUCESTER
It is a quarrel most unnatural, To be revenged on him that loveth you.
LADY ANNE
It is a quarrel just and reasonable, To be revenged on him that slew my husband.
GLOUCESTER
He that bereft thee, lady, of thy husband, Did it to help thee to a better husband.
LADY ANNE
His better doth not breathe upon the earth.
GLOUCESTER
He lives that loves thee better than he could.
LADY ANNE
Name him.
GLOUCESTER
Plantagenet.
LADY ANNE
Why, that was he.
GLOUCESTER
The selfsame name, but one of better nature.
LADY ANNE
Where is he?
GLOUCESTER
Here.
She spitteth at him
Why dost thou spit at me?
LADY ANNE
Would it were mortal poison, for thy sake!
GLOUCESTER
Never came poison from so sweet a place.
LADY ANNE
Never hung poison on a fouler toad. Out of my sight! thou dost infect my eyes.
GLOUCESTER
Thine eyes, sweet lady, have infected mine.
LADY ANNE
Would they were basilisks, to strike thee dead!
GLOUCESTER
I would they were, that I might die at once; For now they kill me with a living death. Those eyes of thine from mine have drawn salt tears, Shamed their aspect with store of childish drops: These eyes that never shed remorseful tear, No, when my father York and Edward wept, To hear the piteous moan that Rutland made When black-faced Clifford shook his sword at him; Nor when thy warlike father, like a child, Told the sad story of my father’s death, And twenty times made pause to sob and weep, That all the standers-by had wet their cheeks Like trees bedash’d with rain: in that sad time My manly eyes did scorn an humble tear; And what these sorrows could not thence exhale, Thy beauty hath, and made them blind with weeping. I never sued to friend nor enemy; My tongue could never learn sweet smoothing word; But now thy beauty is proposed my fee, My proud heart sues, and prompts my tongue to speak.
She looks scornfully at him
Teach not thy lips such scorn, for they were made For kissing, lady, not for such contempt. If thy revengeful heart cannot forgive, Lo, here I lend thee this sharp-pointed sword; Which if thou please to hide in this true bosom. And let the soul forth that adoreth thee, I lay it naked to the deadly stroke, And humbly beg the death upon my knee.
He lays his breast open: she offers at it with his sword
Nay, do not pause; for I did kill King Henry, But ‘twas thy beauty that provoked me. Nay, now dispatch; ‘twas I that stabb’d young Edward, But ‘twas thy heavenly face that set me on.
Here she lets fall the sword
Take up the sword again, or take up me.
LADY ANNE
Arise, dissembler: though I wish thy death, I will not be the executioner.
GLOUCESTER
Then bid me kill myself, and I will do it.
LADY ANNE
I have already.
GLOUCESTER
Tush, that was in thy rage: Speak it again, and, even with the word, That hand, which, for thy love, did kill thy love, Shall, for thy love, kill a far truer love; To both their deaths thou shalt be accessary.
LADY ANNE
I would I knew thy heart.
GLOUCESTER
‘Tis figured in my tongue.
LADY ANNE
I fear me both are false.
GLOUCESTER
Then never man was true.
LADY ANNE
Well, well, put up your sword.
GLOUCESTER
Say, then, my peace is made.
LADY ANNE
That shall you know hereafter.
GLOUCESTER
But shall I live in hope?
LADY ANNE
All men, I hope, live so.
GLOUCESTER
Vouchsafe to wear this ring.
LADY ANNE
To take is not to give.
GLOUCESTER
Look, how this ring encompasseth finger. Even so thy breast encloseth my poor heart; Wear both of them, for both of them are thine. And if thy poor devoted suppliant may But beg one favour at thy gracious hand, Thou dost confirm his happiness for ever.
LADY ANNE
What is it?
GLOUCESTER
That it would please thee leave these sad designs To him that hath more cause to be a mourner, And presently repair to Crosby Place; Where, after I have solemnly interr’d At Chertsey monastery this noble king, And wet his grave with my repentant tears, I will with all expedient duty see you: For divers unknown reasons. I beseech you, Grant me this boon.
LADY ANNE
With all my heart; and much it joys me too, To see you are become so penitent. Tressel and Berkeley, go along with me.
GLOUCESTER
Bid me farewell.
LADY ANNE
‘Tis more than you deserve; But since you teach me how to flatter you, Imagine I have said farewell already.
Exeunt LADY ANNE, TRESSEL, and BERKELEY”
“Was ever woman in this humour woo’d? Was ever woman in this humour won? I’ll have her; but I will not keep her long. What! I, that kill’d her husband and his father, To take her in her heart’s extremest hate, With curses in her mouth, tears in her eyes, The bleeding witness of her hatred by; Having God, her conscience, and these bars against me, And I nothing to back my suit at all, But the plain devil and dissembling looks, And yet to win her, all the world to nothing! Ha! Hath she forgot already that brave prince, Edward, her lord, whom I, some three months since, Stabb’d in my angry mood at Tewksbury? A sweeter and a lovelier gentleman, Framed in the prodigality of nature, Young, valiant, wise, and, no doubt, right royal, The spacious world cannot again afford And will she yet debase her eyes on me, That cropp’d the golden prime of this sweet prince, And made her widow to a woful bed? On me, whose all not equals Edward’s moiety? On me, that halt and am unshapen thus? My dukedom to a beggarly denier, I do mistake my person all this while: Upon my life, she finds, although I cannot, Myself to be a marvellous proper man. I’ll be at charges for a looking-glass, And entertain some score or two of tailors, To study fashions to adorn my body: Since I am crept in favour with myself, Will maintain it with some little cost. But first I’ll turn yon fellow in his grave; And then return lamenting to my love. Shine out, fair sun, till I have bought a glass, That I may see my shadow as I pass.
Exit”
“QUEEN ELIZABETH
Oh, he is young and his minority Is put unto the trust of Richard Gloucester, A man that loves not me, nor none of you.
RIVERS
Is it concluded that he shall be protector?
QUEEN ELIZABETH
It is determined, not concluded yet: But so it must be, if the king miscarry.”
“QUEEN ELIZABETH
God grant him health! Did you confer with him?
BUCKINGHAM
Madam, we did: he desires to make atonement Betwixt the Duke of Gloucester and your brothers, And betwixt them and my lord chamberlain; And sent to warn them to his royal presence.”
“GLOUCESTER
They do me wrong, and I will not endure it: Who are they that complain unto the king, That I, forsooth, am stern, and love them not? By holy Paul, they love his grace but lightly That fill his ears with such dissentious rumours. Because I cannot flatter and speak fair, Smile in men’s faces, smooth, deceive and cog, Duck with French nods and apish courtesy, I must be held a rancorous enemy. Cannot a plain man live and think no harm, But thus his simple truth must be abused By silken, sly, insinuating Jacks?”
“Since every Jack became a gentleman There’s many a gentle person made a Jack.”
“QUEEN ELIZABETH
My Lord of Gloucester, I have too long borne Your blunt upbraidings and your bitter scoffs: By heaven, I will acquaint his majesty With those gross taunts I often have endured. I had rather be a country servant-maid Than a great queen, with this condition, To be thus taunted, scorn’d, and baited at:
Enter QUEEN MARGARET, behind
Small joy have I in being England’s queen.
QUEEN MARGARET
And lessen’d be that small, God, I beseech thee! Thy honour, state and seat is due to me.”
“GLOUCESTER
To fight on Edward’s party for the crown; And for his meed, poor lord, he is mew’d up. I would to God my heart were flint, like Edward’s; Or Edward’s soft and pitiful, like mine I am too childish-foolish for this world.
QUEEN MARGARET
Hie thee to hell for shame, and leave the world, Thou cacodemon! there thy kingdom is.”
“GLOUCESTER
Wert thou not banished on pain of death?
QUEEN MARGARET
I was; but I do find more pain in banishment Than death can yield me here by my abode. A husband and a son thou owest to me; And thou a kingdom; all of you allegiance: The sorrow that I have, by right is yours, And all the pleasures you usurp are mine.
GLOUCESTER
The curse my noble father laid on thee, When thou didst crown his warlike brows with paper And with thy scorns drew’st rivers from his eyes, And then, to dry them, gavest the duke a clout Steep’d in the faultless blood of pretty Rutland– His curses, then from bitterness of soul Denounced against thee, are all fall’n upon thee; And God, not we, hath plagued thy bloody deed.”
“QUEEN MARGARET
Thy friends suspect for traitors while thou livest, And take deep traitors for thy dearest friends! No sleep close up that deadly eye of thine, Unless it be whilst some tormenting dream Affrights thee with a hell of ugly devils! Thou elvish-mark’d, abortive, rooting hog! Thou that wast seal’d in thy nativity The slave of nature and the son of hell! Thou slander of thy mother’s heavy womb! Thou loathed issue of thy father’s loins! Thou rag of honour! thou detested–
GLOUCESTER
Margaret.”
“GLOUCESTER [monólogo]
I do the wrong, and first begin to brawl. The secret mischiefs that I set abroach I lay unto the grievous charge of others. Clarence, whom I, indeed, have laid in darkness, I do beweep to many simple gulls Namely, to Hastings, Derby, Buckingham; And say it is the queen and her allies That stir the king against the duke my brother. Now, they believe it; and withal whet me To be revenged on Rivers, Vaughan, Grey: But then I sigh; and, with a piece of scripture, Tell them that God bids us do good for evil: And thus I clothe my naked villany With old odd ends stolen out of holy writ; And seem a saint, when most I play the devil.
Enter two Murderers
But, soft! here come my executioners. How now, my hardy, stout resolved mates! Are you now going to dispatch this deed?”
“CLARENCE
Lord, Lord! methought, what pain it was to drown! What dreadful noise of waters in mine ears! What ugly sights of death within mine eyes! Methought I saw a thousand fearful wrecks; Ten thousand men that fishes gnaw’d upon; Wedges of gold, great anchors, heaps of pearl, Inestimable stones, unvalued jewels, All scatter’d in the bottom of the sea: Some lay in dead men’s skulls; and, in those holes Where eyes did once inhabit, there were crept, As ‘twere in scorn of eyes, reflecting gems, Which woo’d the slimy bottom of the deep, And mock’d the dead bones that lay scatter’d by.
BRAKENBURY
Had you such leisure in the time of death To gaze upon the secrets of the deep?”
CLARENCE
O, no, my dream was lengthen’d after life; O, then began the tempest to my soul, Who pass’d, methought, the melancholy flood, With that grim ferryman which poets write of, Unto the kingdom of perpetual night. The first that there did greet my stranger soul, Was my great father-in-law, renowned Warwick; Who cried aloud, ‘What scourge for perjury Can this dark monarchy afford false Clarence?’ And so he vanish’d: then came wandering by A shadow like an angel, with bright hair Dabbled in blood; and he squeak’d out aloud, <Clarence is come; false, fleeting, perjured Clarence, That stabb’d me in the field by Tewksbury; Seize on him, Furies, take him to your torments!> With that, methoughts, a legion of foul fiends Environ’d me about, and howled in mine ears Such hideous cries, that with the very noise I trembling waked, and for a season after Could not believe but that I was in hell, Such terrible impression made the dream.”
CLARENCE
O Brakenbury, I have done those things, Which now bear evidence against my soul, For Edward’s sake; and see how he requites me! O God! if my deep prayers cannot appease thee, But thou wilt be avenged on my misdeeds, Yet execute thy wrath in me alone, O, spare my guiltless wife and my poor children! I pray thee, gentle keeper, stay by me; My soul is heavy, and I fain would sleep.
BRAKENBURY
I will, my lord: God give your grace good rest!
CLARENCE sleeps
Sorrow breaks seasons and reposing hours, Makes the night morning, and the noon-tide night. Princes have but their tides for their glories, An outward honour for an inward toil; And, for unfelt imagination, They often feel a world of restless cares: So that, betwixt their tides and low names, There’s nothing differs but the outward fame. Enter the two Murderers
“Second Murderer
What, shall we stab him as he sleeps?
First Murderer
No; then he will say ‘twas done cowardly, when he wakes.
Second Murderer
When he wakes! why, fool, he shall never wake till the judgment-day.
First Murderer
Why, then he will say we stabbed him sleeping.
Second Murderer
The urging of that word ‘judgment’ hath bred a kind of remorse in me.
First Murderer
What, art thou afraid?
Second Murderer
Not to kill him, having a warrant for it; but to be damned for killing him, from which no warrant can defend us.
First Murderer
I thought thou hadst been resolute.
Second Murderer
So I am, to let him live.
First Murderer
Back to the Duke of Gloucester, tell him so.
Second Murderer
I pray thee, stay a while: I hope my holy humour will change; ‘twas wont to hold me but while one would tell twenty.
First Murderer
How dost thou feel thyself now?
Second Murderer
‘Faith, some certain dregs of conscience are yet within me.
First Murderer
Remember our reward, when the deed is done.
Second Murderer
‘Zounds, he dies: I had forgot the reward.
First Murderer
Where is thy conscience now?
Second Murderer
In the Duke of Gloucester’s purse.
First Murderer
So when he opens his purse to give us our reward, thy conscience flies out.
Second Murderer
Let it go; there’s few or none will entertain it.
First Murderer
How if it come to thee again?
Second Murderer
I’ll not meddle with it: it is a dangerous thing: it makes a man a coward: a man cannot steal, but it accuseth him; he cannot swear, but it cheques him; he cannot lie with his neighbour’s wife, but it detects him: ‘tis a blushing shamefast spirit that mutinies in a man’s bosom; it fills one full of obstacles: it made me once restore a purse of gold that I found; it beggars any man that keeps it: it is turned out of all towns and cities for a dangerous thing; and every man that means to live well endeavours to trust to himself and to live without it.
First Murderer
‘Zounds, it is even now at my elbow, persuading me not to kill the duke.
Second Murderer
Take the devil in thy mind, and relieve him not: he would insinuate with thee but to make thee sigh.
First Murderer
Tut, I am strong-framed, he cannot prevail with me, I warrant thee.
Second Murderer
Spoke like a tail fellow that respects his reputation. Come, shall we to this gear?
First Murderer
Take him over the costard with the hilts of thy sword, and then we will chop him in the malmsey-butt in the next room.
Second Murderer
O excellent devise! make a sop of him.
First Murderer
Hark! he stirs: shall I strike?
Second Murderer
No, first let’s reason with him.
CLARENCE
Where art thou, keeper? give me a cup of wine.
Second murderer
You shall have wine enough, my lord, anon.
CLARENCE
In God’s name, what art thou?
Second Murderer
A man, as you are.
CLARENCE
But not, as I am, royal.
Second Murderer
Nor you, as we are, loyal.
CLARENCE
Thy voice is thunder, but thy looks are humble.
Second Murderer
My voice is now the king’s, my looks mine own.
CLARENCE
How darkly and how deadly dost thou speak! Your eyes do menace me: why look you pale? Who sent you hither? Wherefore do you come?
Both
To, to, to–
CLARENCE
To murder me?
Both
Ay, ay.
CLARENCE
You scarcely have the hearts to tell me so, And therefore cannot have the hearts to do it. Wherein, my friends, have I offended you?
First Murderer
Offended us you have not, but the king.
CLARENCE
I shall be reconciled to him again.
Second Murderer
Never, my lord; therefore prepare to die.
CLARENCE
Are you call’d forth from out a world of men To slay the innocent? What is my offence? Where are the evidence that do accuse me? What lawful quest have given their verdict up Unto the frowning judge? or who pronounced The bitter sentence of poor Clarence’ death? Before I be convict by course of law, To threaten me with death is most unlawful. I charge you, as you hope to have redemption By Christ’s dear blood shed for our grievous sins, That you depart and lay no hands on me The deed you undertake is damnable.
First Murderer
What we will do, we do upon command.
Second Murderer
And he that hath commanded is the king.
CLARENCE
Erroneous vassal! the great King of kings Hath in the tables of his law commanded That thou shalt do no murder: and wilt thou, then, Spurn at his edict and fulfil a man’s? Take heed; for he holds vengeance in his hands, To hurl upon their heads that break his law.
Second Murderer
And that same vengeance doth he hurl on thee, For false forswearing and for murder too: Thou didst receive the holy sacrament, To fight in quarrel of the house of Lancaster.
First Murderer
And, like a traitor to the name of God, Didst break that vow; and with thy treacherous blade Unrip’dst the bowels of thy sovereign’s son.
Second Murderer
Whom thou wert sworn to cherish and defend.
First Murderer
How canst thou urge God’s dreadful law to us, When thou hast broke it in so dear degree?
CLARENCE
Alas! for whose sake did I that ill deed? For Edward, for my brother, for his sake: Why, sirs, He sends ye not to murder me for this For in this sin he is as deep as I. If God will be revenged for this deed. O, know you yet, he doth it publicly, Take not the quarrel from his powerful arm; He needs no indirect nor lawless course To cut off those that have offended him.
First Murderer
Who made thee, then, a bloody minister, When gallant-springing brave Plantagenet, That princely novice, was struck dead by thee?
CLARENCE
My brother’s love, the devil, and my rage.
First Murderer
Thy brother’s love, our duty, and thy fault, Provoke us hither now to slaughter thee.
CLARENCE
Oh, if you love my brother, hate not me; I am his brother, and I love him well. If you be hired for meed, go back again, And I will send you to my brother Gloucester, Who shall reward you better for my life Than Edward will for tidings of my death.
Second Murderer
You are deceived, your brother Gloucester hates you.
CLARENCE
O, no, he loves me, and he holds me dear: Go you to him from me.
Both
Ay, so we will.
CLARENCE
Tell him, when that our princely father York Bless’d his three sons with his victorious arm, And charged us from his soul to love each other, He little thought of this divided friendship: Bid Gloucester think of this, and he will weep.
First Murderer
Ay, millstones; as be lesson’d us to weep.
CLARENCE
O, do not slander him, for he is kind.
First Murderer
Right, As snow in harvest. Thou deceivest thyself: ‘Tis he that sent us hither now to slaughter thee.
CLARENCE
It cannot be; for when I parted with him, He hugg’d me in his arms, and swore, with sobs, That he would labour my delivery.
Second Murderer
Why, so he doth, now he delivers thee From this world’s thraldom to the joys of heaven.
First Murderer
Make peace with God, for you must die, my lord.
CLARENCE
Hast thou that holy feeling in thy soul, To counsel me to make my peace with God, And art thou yet to thy own soul so blind, That thou wilt war with God by murdering me? Ah, sirs, consider, he that set you on To do this deed will hate you for the deed.
Second Murderer
What shall we do?
CLARENCE
Relent, and save your souls.
First Murderer
Relent! ‘tis cowardly and womanish.
CLARENCE
Not to relent is beastly, savage, devilish. Which of you, if you were a prince’s son, Being pent from liberty, as I am now, if two such murderers as yourselves came to you, Would not entreat for life? My friend, I spy some pity in thy looks: O, if thine eye be not a flatterer, Come thou on my side, and entreat for me, As you would beg, were you in my distress A begging prince what beggar pities not?
Second Murderer
Look behind you, my lord.
First Murderer
Take that, and that: if all this will not do,
Stabs him
I’ll drown you in the malmsey-butt within.
Exit, with the body
Second Murderer
A bloody deed, and desperately dispatch’d! How fain, like Pilate, would I wash my hands Of this most grievous guilty murder done!
Re-enter First Murderer
First Murderer
How now! what mean’st thou, that thou help’st me not? By heavens, the duke shall know how slack thou art!
Second Murderer
I would he knew that I had saved his brother! Take thou the fee, and tell him what I say; For I repent me that the duke is slain.
Exit
First Murderer
So do not I: go, coward as thou art. Now must I hide his body in some hole, Until the duke take order for his burial:And when I have my meed, I must away; For this will out, and here I must not stay.”
“There wanteth now our brother Gloucester here, To make the perfect period of this peace.”
“Dukes, earls, lords, gentlemen; indeed, of all. I do not know that Englishman alive With whom my soul is any jot at odds More than the infant that is born to-night I thank my God for my humility.”
“QUEEN ELIZABETH
A holy day shall this be kept hereafter: I would to God all strifes were well compounded. My sovereign liege, I do beseech your majesty To take our brother Clarence to your grace.
GLOUCESTER
Why, madam, have I offer’d love for this To be so bouted in this royal presence? Who knows not that the noble duke is dead?
They all start
You do him injury to scorn his corse.
RIVERS
Who knows not he is dead! who knows he is?
QUEEN ELIZABETH
All seeing heaven, what a world is this!
BUCKINGHAM
Look I so pale, Lord Dorset, as the rest?
DORSET
Ay, my good lord; and no one in this presence But his red colour hath forsook his cheeks.
KING EDWARD IV
Is Clarence dead? the order was reversed.
GLOUCESTER
But he, poor soul, by your first order died, And that a winged Mercury did bear: Some tardy cripple bore the countermand, That came too lag to see him buried. God grant that some, less noble and less loyal, Nearer in bloody thoughts, but not in blood, Deserve not worse than wretched Clarence did, And yet go current from suspicion!”
“Have a tongue to doom my brother’s death, And shall the same give pardon to a slave? My brother slew no man; his fault was thought, And yet his punishment was cruel death. Who sued to me for him? who, in my rage, Kneel’d at my feet, and bade me be advised Who spake of brotherhood? who spake of love? Who told me how the poor soul did forsake The mighty Warwick, and did fight for me? Who told me, in the field by Tewksbury When Oxford had me down, he rescued me, And said, ‘Dear brother, live, and be a king’? Who told me, when we both lay in the field Frozen almost to death, how he did lap me Even in his own garments, and gave himself, All thin and naked, to the numb cold night? All this from my remembrance brutish wrath Sinfully pluck’d, and not a man of you Had so much grace to put it in my mind. But when your carters or your waiting-vassals Have done a drunken slaughter, and defaced The precious image of our dear Redeemer, You straight are on your knees for pardon, pardon; And I unjustly too, must grant it you But for my brother not a man would speak, Nor I, ungracious, speak unto myself For him, poor soul. The proudest of you all Have been beholding to him in his life; Yet none of you would once plead for his life. O God, I fear thy justice will take hold On me, and you, and mine, and yours for this! Come, Hastings, help me to my closet. Oh, poor Clarence!”
“Boy
Then, grandam, you conclude that he is dead. The king my uncle is to blame for this: God will revenge it; whom I will importune With daily prayers all to that effect.
Girl
And so will I.
DUCHESS OF YORK [mãe de Gloucester e dos assassinados]
Peace, children, peace! the king doth love you well: Incapable and shallow innocents, You cannot guess who caused your father’s death.”
“Edward, my lord, your son, our king, is dead. Why grow the branches now the root is wither’d? Why wither not the leaves the sap being gone? If you will live, lament; if die, be brief, That our swift-winged souls may catch the king’s; Or, like obedient subjects, follow him To his new kingdom of perpetual rest.”
Thou art a widow; yet thou art a mother, And hast the comfort of thy children left thee: But death hath snatch’d my husband from mine arms, And pluck’d two crutches from my feeble limbs, Edward and Clarence. O, what cause have I, Thine being but a moiety of my grief, To overgo thy plaints and drown thy cries!
Boy
Good aunt, you wept not for our father’s death; How can we aid you with our kindred tears?
Girl
Our fatherless distress was left unmoan’d; Your widow-dolour likewise be unwept!
QUEEN ELIZABETH
Give me no help in lamentation; I am not barren to bring forth complaints All springs reduce their currents to mine eyes, That I, being govern’d by the watery moon, May send forth plenteous tears to drown the world! Oh for my husband, for my dear lord Edward!
Children
Oh for our father, for our dear lord Clarence!
DUCHESS OF YORK
Alas for both, both mine, Edward and Clarence!”
“RIVERS
Madam, bethink you, like a careful mother, Of the young prince your son: send straight for him Let him be crown’d; in him your comfort lives: Drown desperate sorrow in dead Edward’s grave, And plant your joys in living Edward’s throne.
Enter GLOUCESTER, BUCKINGHAM, DERBY, HASTINGS, and RATCLIFF”
“BUCKINGHAM
My lord, whoever journeys to the Prince, For God’s sake, let not us two be behind; For, by the way, I’ll sort occasion, As index to the story we late talk’d of, To part the queen’s proud kindred from the king.
GLOUCESTER
My other self, my counsel’s consistory, My oracle, my prophet! My dear cousin, I, like a child, will go by thy direction. Towards Ludlow then, for we’ll not stay behind.
Exeunt”
“Third Citizen
Doth this news hold of good King Edward’s death?
Second Citizen
Ay, sir, it is too true; God help the while!
Third Citizen
Then, masters, look to see a troublous world.
First Citizen
No, no; by God’s good grace his son shall reign.
Third Citizen
Woe to the land that’s govern’d by a child!
Second Citizen
In him there is a hope of government, That in his nonage council under him, And in his full and ripen’d years himself, No doubt, shall then and till then govern well.
First Citizen
So stood the state when Henry the Sixth Was crown’d in Paris but at nine months old.
Third Citizen
Stood the state so? No, no, good friends, God wot; For then this land was famously enrich’d With politic grave counsel; then the king Had virtuous uncles to protect his grace.”
“O, full of danger is the Duke of Gloucester! And the queen’s sons and brothers haught and proud: And were they to be ruled, and not to rule, This sickly land might solace as before.”
“When clouds appear, wise men put on their cloaks; When great leaves fall, the winter is at hand; When the sun sets, who doth not look for night? Untimely storms make men expect a dearth. All may be well; but, if God sort it so, ‘Tis more than we deserve, or I expect.”
“Quando surgem as nuvens, os prudentes trajam capas;
Quando caem todas as folhas, o inverno está bem próximo;
Quando o sol se põe, que tolo não esperaria a noite?
Tempestades inauditas trazem a estiagem.
Que tudo termine bem, Deus esteja conosco!,
Mas é mais do que merecemos…
Ou do que concebo eu!”
“Small herbs have grace, great weeds do grow apace”
“DUCHESS OF YORK
Good faith, good faith, the saying did not hold In him that did object the same to thee; He was the wretched’st thing when he was young, So long a-growing and so leisurely, That, if this rule were true, he should be gracious”
“YORK
Marry, they say my uncle grew so fast That he could gnaw a crust at two hours old ‘Twas full two years ere I could get a tooth. Grandam, this would have been a biting jest.
DUCHESS OF YORK
I pray thee, pretty York, who told thee this?
YORK
Grandam, his nurse.
DUCHESS OF YORK
His nurse! why, she was dead ere thou wert born.
YORK
If ‘twere not she, I cannot tell who told me.
QUEEN ELIZABETH
A parlous boy: go to, you are too shrewd.
ARCHBISHOP OF YORK
Good madam, be not angry with the child.
QUEEN ELIZABETH
Pitchers [jarros] have ears.”
“DUCHESS OF YORK
Accursed and unquiet wrangling days, How many of you have mine eyes beheld! My husband lost his life to get the crown; And often up and down my sons were toss’d, For me to joy and weep their gain and loss: And being seated, and domestic broils Clean over-blown, themselves, the conquerors. Make war upon themselves; blood against blood, Self against self: O, preposterous And frantic outrage, end thy damned spleen; Or let me die, to look on death no more!”
“GLOUCESTER
(…)
Those uncles which you want were dangerous; Your grace attended to their sugar’d words, But look’d not on the poison of their hearts : God keep you from them, and from such false friends!”
“GLOUCESTER
Where it seems best unto your royal self. If I may counsel you, some day or two Your highness shall repose you at the Tower: Then where you please, and shall be thought most fit For your best health and recreation.
PRINCE EDWARD
I do not like the Tower, of any place. Did Julius Caesar build that place, my lord?”
“GLOUCESTER
[Aside] So wise so young, they say, do never live long.”
“YORK
What, will you go unto the Tower, my lord?
PRINCE EDWARD
My lord protector needs will have it so.
YORK
I shall not sleep in quiet at the Tower.
GLOUCESTER
Why, what should you fear?
YORK
Marry, my uncle Clarence’ angry ghost: My grandam told me he was murdered there.
PRINCE EDWARD
I fear no uncles dead.
GLOUCESTER
Nor none that live, I hope.
PRINCE EDWARD
An if they live, I hope I need not fear. But come, my lord; and with a heavy heart, Thinking on them, go I unto the Tower.”
“BUCKINGHAM
Now, my lord, what shall we do, if we perceive Lord Hastings will not yield to our complots?
GLOUCESTER
Chop off his head, man; somewhat we will do: And, look, when I am king, claim thou of me The earldom of Hereford, and the moveables Whereof the king my brother stood possess’d.”
“To fly the boar before the boar pursues, Were to incense the boar to follow us And make pursuit where he did mean no chase.”
“GREY
Now Margaret’s curse is fall’n upon our heads, For standing by when Richard stabb’d her son.
RIVERS
Then cursed she Hastings, then cursed she Buckingham, Then cursed she Richard. O, remember, God To hear her prayers for them, as now for us And for my sister and her princely sons, Be satisfied, dear God, with our true blood, Which, as thou know’st, unjustly must be spilt.”
“HASTINGS
His grace looks cheerfully and smooth to-day; There’s some conceit or other likes him well, When he doth bid good morrow with such a spirit. I think there’s never a man in Christendom That can less hide his love or hate than he; For by his face straight shall you know his heart.”
“GLOUCESTER
If I thou protector of this damned strumpet– Tellest thou me of ‘ifs’? Thou art a traitor: Off with his head! Now, by Saint Paul I swear, I will not dine until I see the same. Lovel and Ratcliff, look that it be done: The rest, that love me, rise and follow me.”
“Stanley did dream the boar did raze his helm; But I disdain’d it, and did scorn to fly: Three times to-day my foot-cloth horse did stumble, And startled, when he look’d upon the Tower, As loath to bear me to the slaughter-house. O, now I want the priest that spake to me: I now repent I told the pursuivant As ‘twere triumphing at mine enemies, How they at Pomfret bloodily were butcher’d, And I myself secure in grace and favour. O Margaret, Margaret, now thy heavy curse Is lighted on poor Hastings’ wretched head!”
“HASTINGS
O momentary grace of mortal men, Which we more hunt for than the grace of God! Who builds his hopes in air of your good looks, Lives like a drunken sailor on a mast, Ready, with every nod, to tumble down Into the fatal bowels of the deep.”
“GLOUCESTER
So dear I loved the man, that I must weep. I took him for the plainest harmless creature That breathed upon this earth a Christian; Made him my book wherein my soul recorded The history of all her secret thoughts: So smooth he daub’d his vice with show of virtue, That, his apparent open guilt omitted, I mean, his conversation with Shore’s wife, He lived from all attainder of suspect.”
“Nay, for a need, thus far come near my person: Tell them, when that my mother went with child Of that unsatiate Edward, noble York My princely father then had wars in France And, by just computation of the time, Found that the issue was not his begot; Which well appeared in his lineaments, Being nothing like the noble duke my father: But touch this sparingly, as ‘twere far off, Because you know, my lord, my mother lives.”
“Now will I in, to take some privy order, To draw the brats of Clarence out of sight; And to give notice, that no manner of person At any time have recourse unto the princes.
Exit”
“BUCKINGHAM
(…)
And when mine oratory grew to an end I bid them that did love their country’s good Cry ‘God save Richard, England’s royal king!’
GLOUCESTER
Ah! and did they so?
BUCKINGHAM
No, so God help me, they spake not a word; But, like dumb statues or breathing stones, Gazed each on other, and look’d deadly pale.”
“And some ten voices cried ‘God save King Richard!’ And thus I took the vantage of those few, ‘Thanks, gentle citizens and friends,’ quoth I; ‘This general applause and loving shout Argues your wisdoms and your love to Richard’’
“BUCKINGHAM
Ah, ha, my lord, this prince is not an Edward! He is not lolling on a lewd day-bed, But on his knees at meditation; Not dallying with a brace of courtezans, But meditating with two deep divines; Not sleeping, to engross his idle body, But praying, to enrich his watchful soul: Happy were England, would this gracious prince Take on himself the sovereignty thereof: But, sure, I fear, we shall ne’er win him to it.”
“BUCKINGHAM
Two props of virtue for a Christian prince, To stay him from the fall of vanity: And, see, a book of prayer in his hand, True ornaments to know a holy man. Famous Plantagenet, most gracious prince, Lend favourable ears to our request; And pardon us the interruption Of thy devotion and right Christian zeal.”
“BUCKINGHAM
My lord, this argues conscience in your grace; But the respects thereof are nice and trivial, All circumstances well considered. You say that Edward is your brother’s son: So say we too, but not by Edward’s wife; For first he was contract to Lady Lucy– Your mother lives a witness to that vow– And afterward by substitute betroth’d To Bona, sister to the King of France. These both put by a poor petitioner, A care-crazed mother of a many children, A beauty-waning and distressed widow, Even in the afternoon of her best days, Made prize and purchase of his lustful eye, Seduced the pitch and height of all his thoughts To base declension and loathed bigamy By her, in his unlawful bed, he got This Edward, whom our manners term the prince. More bitterly could I expostulate, Save that, for reverence to some alive, I give a sparing limit to my tongue. Then, good my lord, take to your royal self This proffer’d benefit of dignity; If non to bless us and the land withal, Yet to draw forth your noble ancestry From the corruption of abusing times, Unto a lineal true-derived course.”
“Yet whether you accept our suit or no, Your brother’s son shall never reign our king; But we will plant some other in the throne, To the disgrace and downfall of your house: And in this resolution here we leave you.– Come, citizens: ‘zounds! I’ll entreat no more.”
“GLOUCESTER
Cousin of Buckingham, and you sage, grave men, Since you will buckle fortune on my back, To bear her burthen, whether I will or no, I must have patience to endure the load: But if black scandal or foul-faced reproach Attend the sequel of your imposition, Your mere enforcement shall acquittance me From all the impure blots and stains thereof; For God he knows, and you may partly see, How far I am from the desire thereof.
Lord Mayor
God bless your grace! we see it, and will say it.”
“BUCKINGHAM
Then I salute you with this kingly title: Long live Richard, England’s royal king!
Lord Mayor,Citizens
Amen.”
“BRAKENBURY
Right well, dear madam. By your patience, I may not suffer you to visit them; The king hath straitly charged the contrary.
QUEEN ELIZABETH
The king! why, who’s that?
BRAKENBURY
I cry you mercy: I mean the lord protector.”
“LORD STANLEY
(…)
To LADY ANNE
Come, madam, you must straight to Westminster, There to be crowned Richard’s royal queen.
QUEEN ELIZABETH
O, cut my lace in sunder, that my pent heart May have some scope to beat, or else I swoon With this dead-killing news!
LADY ANNE
Despiteful tidings! O unpleasing news!”
“DUCHESS OF YORK
O ill-dispersing wind of misery! O my accursed womb, the bed of death! A cockatrice hast thou hatch’d to the world, Whose unavoided eye is murderous.”
“LADY ANNE
And I in all unwillingness will go. I would to God that the inclusive verge Of golden metal that must round my brow Were red-hot steel, to sear me to the brain! Anointed let me be with deadly venom, And die, ere men can say, God save the queen!”
“I to my grave, where peace and rest lie with me! Eighty odd years of sorrow have I seen, And each hour’s joy wrecked with a week of teen.”
“KING RICHARD III
(…)
Thus high, by thy advice And thy assistance, is King Richard seated; But shall we wear these honours for a day? Or shall they last, and we rejoice in them?”
“KING RICHARD III
Ha! am I king? ‘tis so: but Edward lives.
BUCKINGHAM
True, noble prince.”
“Cousin, thou wert not wont to be so dull: Shall I be plain? I wish the bastards dead; And I would have it suddenly perform’d. What sayest thou? speak suddenly; be brief.”
“The deep-revolving witty Buckingham No more shall be the neighbour to my counsel: Hath he so long held out with me untired, And stops he now for breath?”
“Rumour it abroad That Anne, my wife, is sick and like to die: I will take order for her keeping close. Inquire me out some mean-born gentleman, Whom I will marry straight to Clarence’s daughter: The boy is foolish, and I fear not him. Look, how thou dream’st! I say again, give out That Anne my wife is sick and like to die: About it; for it stands me much upon, To stop all hopes whose growth may damage me.”
“I must be married to my brother’s daughter, Or else my kingdom stands on brittle glass. Murder her brothers, and then marry her! Uncertain way of gain! But I am in So far in blood that sin will pluck on sin: Tear-falling pity dwells not in this eye.”
“KING RICHARD III
As I remember, Henry the Sixth Did prophesy that Richmond should be king, When Richmond was a little peevish boy. A king, perhaps, perhaps,–”
KING RICHARD III
Richmond! (…)
a bard of Ireland told me once I should not live long after I saw Richmond.”
“TYRREL
The tyrannous and bloody deed is done. The most arch of piteous massacre That ever yet this land was guilty of.”
“The son of Clarence have I pent up close; His daughter meanly have I match’d in marriage; The sons of Edward sleep in Abraham’s bosom, And Anne my wife hath bid the world good night. Now, for I know the Breton Richmond aims At young Elizabeth, my brother’s daughter, And, by that knot, looks proudly o’er the crown, To her I go, a jolly thriving wooer.”
“QUEEN ELIZABETH
O thou well skill’d in curses, stay awhile, And teach me how to curse mine enemies!
QUEEN MARGARET
Forbear to sleep the nights, and fast the days; Compare dead happiness with living woe; Think that thy babes were fairer than they were, And he that slew them fouler than he is: Bettering thy loss makes the bad causer worse: Revolving this will teach thee how to curse.”
“KING RICHARD III
Who intercepts my expedition?
DUCHESS OF YORK
O, she that might have intercepted thee, By strangling thee in her accursed womb From all the slaughters, wretch, that thou hast done!”
“…Tell me, thou villain slave, where are my children?
DUCHESS OF YORK
Thou toad, thou toad, where is thy brother Clarence? And little Ned Plantagenet, his son?
QUEEN ELIZABETH
Where is kind Hastings, Rivers, Vaughan, Grey?
KING RICHARD III
A flourish, trumpets! strike alarum, drums! Let not the heavens hear these tell-tale women Rail on the Lord’s enointed: strike, I say!
Flourish. Alarums
Either be patient, and entreat me fair, Or with the clamorous report of war Thus will I drown your exclamations.”
“Thou camest on earth to make the earth my hell. A grievous burthen was thy birth to me; Tetchy and wayward was thy infancy; Thy school-days frightful, desperate, wild, and furious, Thy prime of manhood daring, bold, and venturous, Thy age confirm’d, proud, subdued, bloody, treacherous, More mild, but yet more harmful, kind in hatred: What comfortable hour canst thou name, That ever graced me in thy company?”
“…take with thee my most heavy curse; Which, in the day of battle, tire thee more Than all the complete armour that thou wear’st! My prayers on the adverse party fight; And there the little souls of Edward’s children Whisper the spirits of thine enemies And promise them success and victory. Bloody thou art, bloody will be thy end; Shame serves thy life and doth thy death attend.
Exit”
“QUEEN ELIZABETH
I have no more sons of the royal blood For thee to murder: for my daughters, Richard, They shall be praying nuns, not weeping queens; And therefore level not to hit their lives.
KING RICHARD III
You have a daughter call’d Elizabeth, Virtuous and fair, royal and gracious.”
“No doubt the murderous knife was dull and blunt Till it was whetted on thy stone-hard heart, To revel in the entrails of my lambs. But that still use of grief makes wild grief tame, My tongue should to thy ears not name my boys Till that my nails were anchor’d in thine eyes; And I, in such a desperate bay of death, Like a poor bark, of sails and tackling reft, Rush all to pieces on thy rocky bosom.”
“KING RICHARD III
Even all I have; yea, and myself and all, Will I withal endow a child of thine; So in the Lethe of thy angry soul Thou drown the sad remembrance of those wrongs Which thou supposest I have done to thee.”
“If I did take the kingdom from your sons, To make amends, Ill give it to your daughter. If I have kill’d the issue of your womb, To quicken your increase, I will beget Mine issue of your blood upon your daughter A grandam’s name is little less in love Than is the doting title of a mother; They are as children but one step below, Even of your mettle, of your very blood; Of an one pain, save for a night of groans Endured of her, for whom you bid like sorrow. Your children were vexation to your youth, But mine shall be a comfort to your age. The loss you have is but a son being king, And by that loss your daughter is made queen. I cannot make you what amends I would, Therefore accept such kindness as I can. Dorset your son, that with a fearful soul Leads discontented steps in foreign soil, This fair alliance quickly shall call home To high promotions and great dignity: The king, that calls your beauteous daughter wife. Familiarly shall call thy Dorset brother; Again shall you be mother to a king, And all the ruins of distressful times Repair’d with double riches of content.”
“QUEEN ELIZABETH
What were I best to say? her father’s brother Would be her lord? or shall I say, her uncle? Or, he that slew her brothers and her uncles? Under what title shall I woo for thee, That God, the law, my honour and her love, Can make seem pleasing to her tender years?”
“Day, yield me not thy light; nor, night, thy rest! Be opposite all planets of good luck To my proceedings, if, with pure heart’s love, Immaculate devotion, holy thoughts, I tender not thy beauteous princely daughter! In her consists my happiness and thine; Without her, follows to this land and me, To thee, herself, and many a Christian soul, Death, desolation, ruin and decay: It cannot be avoided but by this; It will not be avoided but by this.”
“QUEEN ELIZABETH
But thou didst kill my children.
KING RICHARD III
But in your daughter’s womb I bury them: Where in that nest of spicery they shall breed Selves of themselves, to your recomforture.
QUEEN ELIZABETH
Shall I go win my daughter to thy will?
KING RICHARD III
And be a happy mother by the deed.
QUEEN ELIZABETH
I go. Write to me very shortly. And you shall understand from me her mind.
KING RICHARD III
Bear her my true love’s kiss; and so, farewell.
Exit QUEEN ELIZABETH
Relenting fool, and shallow, changing woman!”
“DERBY
Sir Christopher, tell Richmond this from me: That in the sty of this most bloody boar My son George Stanley is frank’d up in hold: If I revolt, off goes young George’s head; The fear of that withholds my present aid. But, tell me, where is princely Richmond now?
CHRISTOPHER
At Pembroke, or at Harford-west, in Wales.
DERBY
What men of name resort to him?
CHRISTOPHER
Sir Walter Herbert, a renowned soldier; Sir Gilbert Talbot, Sir William Stanley; Oxford, redoubted Pembroke, Sir James Blunt, And Rice ap Thomas with a valiant crew; And many more of noble fame and worth: And towards London they do bend their course, If by the way they be not fought withal.
DERBY
Return unto thy lord; commend me to him: Tell him the queen hath heartily consented He shall espouse Elizabeth her daughter. These letters will resolve him of my mind. Farewell.
Exeunt”
“BUCKINGHAM
Why, then All-Souls’ day is my body’s doomsday. This is the day that, in King Edward’s time, I wish’t might fall on me, when I was found False to his children or his wife’s allies This is the day wherein I wish’d to fall By the false faith of him I trusted most; This, this All-Souls’ day to my fearful soul Is the determined respite of my wrongs: That high All-Seer that I dallied with Hath turn’d my feigned prayer on my head And given in earnest what I begg’d in jest. Thus doth he force the swords of wicked men To turn their own points on their masters’ bosoms: Now Margaret’s curse is fallen upon my head; ‘When he,’ quoth she, ‘shall split thy heart with sorrow, Remember Margaret was a prophetess.’ Come, sirs, convey me to the block of shame; Wrong hath but wrong, and blame the due of blame.”
“I did but dream. O coward conscience, how dost thou afflict me! The lights burn blue. It is now dead midnight. Cold fearful drops stand on my trembling flesh. What do I fear? myself? there’s none else by: Richard loves Richard; that is, I am I. Is there a murderer here? No. Yes, I am: Then fly. What, from myself? Great reason why: Lest I revenge. What, myself upon myself? Alack. I love myself. Wherefore? for any good That I myself have done unto myself? O, no! alas, I rather hate myself For hateful deeds committed by myself! I am a villain: yet I lie. I am not. Fool, of thyself speak well: fool, do not flatter. My conscience hath a thousand several tongues, And every tongue brings in a several tale, And every tale condemns me for a villain. Perjury, perjury, in the high’st degree Murder, stem murder, in the direst degree; All several sins, all used in each degree, Throng to the bar, crying all, Guilty! guilty! I shall despair. There is no creature loves me; And if I die, no soul shall pity me: Nay, wherefore should they, since that I myself Find in myself no pity to myself? Methought the souls of all that I had murder’d Came to my tent; and every one did threat To-morrow’s vengeance on the head of Richard.”
“By the apostle Paul, shadows to-night Have struck more terror to the soul of Richard Than can the substance of ten thousand soldiers Armed in proof, and led by shallow Richmond. It is not yet near day. Come, go with me; Under our tents I’ll play the eaves-dropper [espia], To see if any mean to shrink from me.”
“…Ten the clock there. Give me a calendar. Who saw the sun to-day?
RATCLIFF
Not I, my lord.
KING RICHARD III
Then he disdains to shine; for by the book He should have braved the east an hour ago A black day will it be to somebody. Ratcliff!”
“Why, what is that to me More than to Richmond? for the selfsame heaven That frowns on me looks sadly upon him.”
“CATESBY
Rescue, my Lord of Norfolk, rescue, rescue! The king enacts more wonders than a man, Daring an opposite to every danger: His horse is slain, and all on foot he fights, Seeking for Richmond in the throat of death. Rescue, fair lord, or else the day is lost!
Alarums. Enter KING RICHARD III
KING RICHARD III
A horse! a horse! my kingdom for a horse!”
“Slave, I have set my life upon a cast, And I will stand the hazard of the die: I think there be six Richmonds in the field; Five have I slain to-day instead of him. A horse! a horse! my kingdom for a horse!”
“SCENE V. Another part of the field.
Alarum. Enter KING RICHARD III and RICHMOND; they fight. KING RICHARD III is slain. Retreat and flourish. Re-enter RICHMOND, DERBY bearing the crown, with divers other Lords
RICHMOND
God and your arms be praised, victorious friends, The day is ours, the bloody dog is dead.”
“And then, as we have ta’en the sacrament, We will unite the white rose and the red: Smile heaven upon this fair conjunction, That long have frown’d upon their enmity! What traitor hears me, and says not amen? England hath long been mad, and scarr’d herself; The brother blindly shed the brother’s blood, The father rashly slaughter’d his own son, The son, compell’d, been butcher to the sire: All this divided York and Lancaster, Divided in their dire division, O, now, let Richmond and Elizabeth, The true succeeders of each royal house, By God’s fair ordinance conjoin together! And let their heirs, God, if thy will be so. Enrich the time to come with smooth-faced peace, With smiling plenty and fair prosperous days!”
Estou cada vez mais convencido de que este livro não passa de um rascunho com anotações desordenadas de um imaturo (ou senil?) Aristóteles, que estava destinado a aprimorar sua obra, mas foi interrompido por um “erro divino” e teve de abandonar seu projeto ou, pois não!, já agonizava na demência e nem que vivesse mais 10 anos poderia dar forma e estilo ao que essencialmente não tem conteúdo nem originalidade algumas (conforme veremos, reiteradamente)…
“A natureza, com efeito, não age com parcimônia, como os artesãos de Delfos que forjam suas facas para vários fins; fins; ela destina cada coisa a um uso especial (…) Somente entre os bárbaros a mulher e o escravo estão no mesmo nível. (…) Foi isso que fez com que o poeta acreditasse que os gregos tinham, de direito, poder sobre os bárbaros, como se, na natureza, bárbaros e escravos se confundissem.” “O poeta Hesíodo tinha razão ao dizer que era preciso antes de tudo A casa, e depois a mulher e o boi lavrador, já que o boi desempenha o papel do escravo entre os pobres.”
“todos os homens que antigamente viveram e ainda vivem sob reis dizem que os deuses vivem da mesma maneira, atribuindo-lhes o governo das sociedades humanas, já que os imaginam sob a forma do homem.”
“Bastar-se a si mesma é uma meta a que tende toda a produção da natureza e é também o mais perfeito estado. É, portanto, evidente que toda cidade está na natureza e que o homem é naturalmente feito para a sociedade política. Aquele que, por sua natureza e não por obra do acaso, existisse sem nenhuma pátria seria um indivíduo detestável, muito acima ou muito abaixo do homem, segundo Homero(*)”
“Assim, o homem é um animal cívico, mais social do que as abelhas e os outros animais que vivem juntos.”
“O Estado, ou sociedade política, é até mesmo o primeiro objeto a que se propôs a natureza. O todo existe necessariamente antes da parte. As sociedades domésticas e os indivíduos não são senão as partes integrantes da cidade, todas subordinadas ao corpo inteiro, todas distintas por seus poderes e suas funções, e todas inúteis quando desarticuladas, semelhantes às mãos e aos pés que, uma vez separados do corpo, só conservam o nome e a aparência, sem a realidade, como uma mão de pedra. O mesmo ocorre com os membros da cidade: nenhum pode bastar-se a si mesmo. (*)Aquele que não precisa dos outros homens, ou não pode resolver-se a ficar com eles, ou é um deus, ou um bruto.”
“Por si mesmas, as armas e a força são indiferentes ao bem e ao mal: é o princípio motor que qualifica seu uso. Servir-se delas sem nenhum direito e unicamente para saciar suas paixões rapaces ou lúbricas é atrocidade e perfídia. Seu uso só é lícito para a justiça. O discernimento e o respeito ao direito formam a base da vida social e os juízes são seus primeiros órgãos.”
“Chamaremos despotismo o poder do senhor sobre o escravo; marital, o do marido sobre a mulher; paternal, o do pai sobre os filhos (dois poderes para os quais o grego não tem substantivos).”
“outros consideram que o poder senhorial não tem nenhum fundamento na natureza e pretendem que esta nos criou a todos livres, e a escravidão só foi introduzida pela lei do mais forte e é, por si mesma, injusta como um puro efeito da violência.”
“as propriedades são uma reunião de instrumentos e o escravo, uma propriedade instrumental animada, como um agente preposto a todos os outros meios.”
“Se cada instrumento pudesse executar por si mesmo a vontade ou a intenção do agente, como faziam, dizem, as marionetes de Dédalo ou os tripés de Vulcano, que vinham por si mesmos, segundo Homero, aos combates dos deuses, se a lançadeira tecesse sozinha a tela, se o arco tirasse sozinho de uma cítara o som desejado, os arquitetos não mais precisariam de operários, nem os mestres de escravos.”
“A vida consiste no uso, não na produção.” “O senhor não é senão o proprietário de seu escravo, mas não lhe pertence; o escravo, pelo contrário, não somente é destinado ao uso do senhor, como também dele é parte. Isto basta para dar uma idéia da escravidão e para fazer conhecer esta condição. O homem que, por natureza, não pertence a si mesmo, mas a um outro, é escravo por natureza”
“Mas faz a natureza ou não de um homem um escravo? É justa e útil a escravidão ou é contra a natureza? É isto que devemos examinar agora.” “Não é apenas necessário, mas também vantajoso que haja mando por um lado e obediência por outro; e todos os seres, desde o primeiro instante do nascimento, são, por assim dizer, marcados pela natureza, uns para comandar, outros para obedecer.”
“A natureza ainda subordinou um dos dois animais ao outro. Em todas as espécies, o macho é evidentemente superior à fêmea: a espécie humana não é exceção.”
“o uso dos escravos e dos animais é mais ou menos o mesmo e tiram-se deles os mesmos serviços para as necessidades da vida.” Tal como abanar na rede e ler uma epopéia…
“Vemos corpos robustos talhados especialmente para carregar fardos e outros usos igualmente necessários; outros, pelo contrário, mais disciplinados, mas também mais esguios e incapazes de tais trabalhos, são bons apenas para a vida política, isto é, para os exercícios da paz e da guerra. Ocorre muitas vezes, porém, o contrário: brutos têm a forma exterior da liberdade e outros, sem aparentar, só têm a alma de livre.”
A deusa Hera deve ser feia por dentro.
“Além da servidão natural, existe aquela que chamamos servidão estabelecida pela lei; esta lei é uma espécie de convenção geral, segundo a qual a presa tomada na guerra pertence ao vencedor.
Será justo? Sobre isso, os jurisconsultos não chegam a um acordo, nem tampouco, aliás, sobre a justiça de muitas outras decisões tomadas nas assembléias populares, contra as quais eles reclamam. Consideram cruel que um homem que sofreu violência se torne escravo do que o violentou e só tem sobre ele a vantagem da força. Este, pelo menos, é um ponto muito controverso para eles e, se têm muitos contraditores, têm também muitos partidários, mesmo entre os filósofos.” “uns não podem separar o direito da benevolência, outros afirmam que é da própria essência do direito que o mais valente comande. (…) A superioridade de coragem não é uma razão para sujeitar os outros.”
“Ora, o escravo faz, por assim dizer, parte de seu senhor: embora separado na existência, é como um membro anexado a seu corpo. Ambos têm o mesmo interesse e nada impede que estejam ligados pelo sentimento da amizade, quando foi a conveniência natural que os reuniu.”
“O governo doméstico é uma espécie de monarquia: toda casa se governa por uma só pessoa; o governo civil, pelo contrário, pertence a todos os que são livres e iguais.”
“em Siracusa, uma espécie de preceptor abriu uma escola de escravidão e exigia dinheiro para preparar as crianças para este estado, com todos os pormenores de suas funções. Pode haver um ensino completo dessa espécie de profissão, assim como existem preceitos para a cozinha e outros gêneros de serviço, ou mais estimados, ou mais necessários, pois também o serviço tem os seus graus.”
“Há servos e servos e há senhores e senhores.”
“Quanto à ciência do senhor, como não é nem na aquisição, nem na posse, mas no uso de seus escravos que está o seu domínio, ela se reduz a saber fazer uso deles, isto é, a saber ordenar-lhes o que eles devem saber fazer.” APLICAÇÃO DOMÉSTICA RETROATIVA: Meu pai, senhor, não era um bom administrador, por isso perdeu o controle de seus escravos.
(cont.) “Não há aí nenhum trabalho grande ou sublime, e assim os que têm meios de evitar esse estorvo desembaraçam-se dele com algum intendente, quer para se dedicar à política, quer para se dedicar à filosofia.” Para se dedicar ao trabalho (como escravo de outros senhores), o caso do meu progenitor em particular. Com isso, nenhuma vantagem obteve, pois não havia superintendente. Nossos casos são análogos se eu pensar naquilo em que me dedico, tendo escasso tempo para ordenar uma futura humanidade a fazer o que eu quero. Mas como não viverei para fruir de uma eventual decepção, estou em vantagem. Sempre posso acreditar, até a minha morte, que fui um melhor mestre!
“O talento para adquirir um bem parece-se mais com a arte militar ou com a caça.” “A arte de adquirir bens será idêntica à ciência do governo doméstico? Faz parte dela ou será apenas um de seus meios?”
“É uma primeira questão dizer se a agricultura, que é apenas uma maneira de obter os alimentos necessários à vida, ou alguma outra indústria que também tenha os alimentos como objeto, pertencem à arte de se enriquecer.”
“Mas existe também um outro gênero de bens e de meios que comumente chamamos, e com razão, especulativo, e que parece não ter limites.”
“Tampouco foi a natureza que produziu o comércio que consiste em comprar para revender mais caro. A troca era um expediente necessário para proporcionar a cada um a satisfação de suas necessidades. Ela não era necessária na sociedade primitiva das famílias, onde tudo era comum.”
“Quando uma tribo tem de sobra o que falta a outra, elas permutam o que têm de supérfluo através de trocas recíprocas; vinho por trigo ou outras coisas que lhes podem ser de uso, e nada mais. Trata-se de um gênero de comércio que não está nem fora das intenções da natureza, nem tampouco é uma das maneiras naturais de aumentar seus pertences, mas sim um modo engenhoso de satisfazer as respectivas necessidades.”
“Não era cômodo transportar para longe as mercadorias ou outras produções para trazer outras, sem estar certo de encontrar aquilo que se procurava, nem que aquilo que se levava conviria. Podia acontecer que não se precisasse do supérfluo dos outros, ou que não precisassem do vosso. Estabeleceu-se, portanto, dar e receber reciprocamente em troca algo que, além de seu valor intrínseco, apresentasse a comodidade de ser mais manejável e de transporte mais fácil, como o metal, tanto o ferro quanto a prata ou qualquer outro, que primeiramente se determinou pelo volume ou pelo peso e a seguir se marcou com um sinal distintivo de seu valor, a fim de não se precisar medi-lo ou pesá-lo a toda hora.”
“Tendo a moeda sido inventada, portanto, para as necessidades de comércio, originou-se dela uma nova maneira de comerciar e adquirir. A princípio, era bastante simples; depois, com o tempo, passou a ser mais refinada, quando se soube de onde e de que maneira se podia tirar dela o maior lucro possível. É este lucro pecuniário que ela postula; ela só se ocupa em procurar de onde vem mais dinheiro: é a mãe das grandes fortunas. De fato, comumente se faz consistir a riqueza na grande quantidade de dinheiro.” “Ora, é absurdo chamar riquezas um metal cuja abundância não impede de se morrer de fome; prova disso é o Midas da fábula, a quem o céu, para puni-lo de sua insaciável avareza, concedera o dom de transformar em ouro tudo o que tocasse.” “As verdadeiras riquezas são as da natureza; apenas elas são objeto da ciência econômica.”
“A outra maneira de enriquecer pertence ao comércio, profissão voltada inteiramente para o dinheiro, que sonha com ele, que não tem outro elemento nem outro fim, que não tem limite onde possa deter-se a cupidez.” “O fim a que se propõe o comércio não tem limite determinado. Ele compreende todos os bens que se podem adquirir; mas é menos a sua aquisição do que seu uso o objeto da ciência econômica; esta, portanto, está necessariamente restrita a uma quantidade determinada.”
“O dinheiro serve ao comerciante para dois usos análogos e alternativos: um, para comprar as coisas e revendê-las mais caro; outro, para emprestar e retirar, após o prazo estabelecido, seu capital com juros. Estes dois ramos do seu tráfico não diferem, como se vê, senão porque um interpõe as coisas para aumentar o dinheiro, enquanto o outro o faz servir imediatamente ao seu próprio aumento.”
“A coragem, por exemplo, não foi dada ao homem pela natureza para acumular bens, mas para proporcionar tranqüilidade. Não é esse tampouco o objeto da profissão militar, nem o da medicina, tendo uma por objeto vencer, e outra curar.” “elas se tornam o único fim da maioria das pessoas que entram nessas carreiras e subordinam tudo à meta que se propuseram.”
“para a família gozar de saúde, convém mais o médico do que o chefe de família; assim como para o abastecimento e a abundância, este cuidado pode caber antes aos ministros do Estado.”
“O que há de mais odioso, sobretudo, do que o tráfico de dinheiro, que consiste em dar para ter mais e com isso desvia a moeda de sua destinação primitiva?” “em grego demos à moeda o nome de tokos, que significa progenitura, porque as coisas geradas se parecem com as que as geraram.”
“Existem escritores que se ocuparam desses diversos assuntos, tais como Carés de Paros, Apolodoro de Lemnos, autores de tratados sobre a cultura dos campos e dos pomares, e outros ainda, sobre outras matérias. Os curiosos devem consultá-los.”
“Como censuravam Tales de Mileto pela pobreza e zombavam de sua inútil filosofia, o conhecimento dos astros permitiu-lhe prever que haveria abundância de olivas. Tendo juntado todo o dinheiro que podia, ele alugou, antes do fim do inverno, todas as prensas de óleo de Mileto e de Quios. Conseguiu-as a bom preço, porque ninguém oferecera melhor e ele dera algum adiantamento. Feita a colheita, muitas pessoas apareceram ao mesmo tempo para conseguir as prensas e ele as alugou pelo preço que quis. Tendo ganhado muito dinheiro, mostrou a seus amigos que para os filósofos era muito fácil enriquecer, mas que eles não se importavam com isso. Foi assim que mostrou sua sabedoria. Em geral, o monopólio é um meio rápido de fazer fortuna. Assim, algumas cidades, quando precisam de dinheiro, usam desse recurso. Reservam-se a si mesmas a faculdade de vender certas mercadorias e, por conseguinte, de fixar seus preços como querem.
Na Sicília, um homem que obtivera vários depósitos de dinheiro apoderou-se dos ferros das forjas. Quando os mercadores vieram de todas as partes para obtê-los, só ele pôde vendê-los, contentando-se com o dobro, de maneira que o que lhe custara 50 talentos vendia por 100. Dionísio, o tirano, informado do caso, não confiscou seu lucro, mas ordenou-lhe que saísse de Siracusa por ter imaginado, para enriquecer, um expediente prejudicial aos interesses do chefe de Estado. Aquele homem tivera a mesma idéia que Tales: ambos do monopólio fizeram uma arte.”
“É bom que os que governam os Estados conheçam esse recurso, pois é preciso dinheiro para as despesas públicas e para as despesas domésticas, e o Estado está menos do que ninguém em condições de dispensá-lo. Assim, o capítulo das finanças é quase o único a que alguns prestam atenção.”
“A autoridade dos pais sobre os filhos é uma espécie de realeza; todos os títulos ali se encontram: o da geração, o da autoridade afetuosa e o da idade. É até mesmo o protótipo da autoridade real; foi o que fez com que Homero dissesse de Zeus:
É o pai imortal dos homens e dos deuses”¹
¹ Interessante que é uma paternidade “que não passa”; além do mais, Zeus segue eternamente mais jovem que seus ancestrais. Ele não é o protótipo da realeza, mas do despotismo.
“Deve uma mulher ser sábia, corajosa e justa? Deve uma criança ter contenção e sobriedade?”
“Se as mesmas qualidades lhes são necessárias, por que então o mando cabe a um e a obediência a outro? A diferença entre os dois não é do mais para o menos, mas sim específica e produz efeitos essencialmente diversos.” Ininteligível.
“Todos têm, portanto, virtudes morais, mas a temperança, a força, a justiça não devem ser, como pensava Sócrates, as mesmas num homem e numa mulher. A força de um homem consiste em se impor; a de uma mulher, em vencer a dificuldade de obedecer.”
“Mais vale, como Górgias, estabelecer a lista das virtudes do que se deter em semelhantes definições e imitar, no mais, a precisão do poeta que disse que
um modesto silêncio é a honra da mulher,
ao passo que não fica bem no homem.”
“um profissional está numa espécie de servidão limitada; mas a natureza que faz os escravos não faz os sapateiros, nem os outros artesãos.”
“A educação das mulheres e das crianças deve ser da alçada do Estado, já que importa à felicidade do Estado que as mulheres e as crianças sejam virtuosas.”
“O Estado é o sujeito constante da política e do governo; a constituição política não é senão a ordem dos habitantes que o compõem.”
“Alguém que é cidadão numa democracia não o é numa oligarquia.” “É cidadão aquele que, no país em que reside, é admitido na jurisdição e na deliberação. É a universalidade deste tipo de gente, com riqueza suficiente para viver de modo independente, que constitui a cidade ou o Estado. O costume é dar o nome de cidadão apenas àquele que nasceu de pais cidadãos. De nada serviria que o pai o fosse, se a mãe não for.”
“Operários (artesãos, comerciantes) livres não são cidadãos. As obras da virtude são impraticáveis para quem quer que leve uma vida mecânica e mercenária.” “Em Tebas, o próprio comércio dificulta o acesso à cidadania. Havia uma lei que exigia que se tivesse fechado a loja e deixado de vender há dez anos para ser admitido.”
HOMEM DE BEM X BOM CIDADÃO
virtudes absolutas (nobreza)¹ X virtude limitada ou específica (mediania)
Todo homem de bem é bom cidadão.
Poucos bons cidadãos são também homens de bem.
Sempre comanda (porém, via de regra, em Ari., quem sabe comandar também sabe obedecer)¹ X deve sempre saber obedecer e não lhe está vedado saber comandar (ex: o soldado de ontem pode ser o general de amanhã, que é um servo do governo)
¹ Segundo Aristóteles, as mulheres não estão excluídas da classe suprema (homens de bem), mas suas limitações são evidentes (devem mais obedecer que comandar, ser discretas, guardar-se de atos de valentia).
“num grupo de dançarinos, é preciso mais talento para o papel de corifeu do que para o de corista. A desigualdade de mérito é, pois, evidente.”
“Entre as pessoas que estão em servidão, é preciso contar os trabalhadores manuais que vivem, como indica seu nome, do trabalho de suas mãos e os artesãos que se ocupam dos ofícios sórdidos.” Definição do “idiota político” clássico (ou antigo), que não é nem homem de bem nem cidadão.
Ah, a poluição da palavra!
* * *
“Aqueles que se propõem [a] dar aos Estados uma boa constituição prestam atenção principalmente nas virtudes e nos vícios que interessam à sociedade civil, e não há nenhuma dúvida de que a verdadeira cidade (a que não o é somente de nome) deve estimar acima de tudo a virtude.
Sem isso, não será mais do que uma liga ou associação de armas, diferindo das outras ligas apenas pelo lugar, isto é, pela circunstância indiferente da proximidade ou do afastamento respectivo dos membros. Sua lei não é senão uma simples convenção de garantia, capaz, diz o sofista Licofrão, de mantê-los no dever recíproco, mas incapaz de torná-los bons e honestos cidadãos.”
“Eles fizeram um pacto de não-agressão no que toca a seus comércios e até prometeram tomar armas para sua mútua defesa, mas não têm outra comunicação a não ser o comércio e seus tratados. Mais uma vez, esta não será uma sociedade civil. Por quê, então?” “A cidade, portanto, NÃO é precisamente uma comunidade de lugar, nem foi instituída simplesmente para se defender contra as injustiças de outrem ou para estabelecer comércio. Tudo isso deve existir antes da formação do Estado, mas não basta para constituí-lo.”
“É isto o que chamamos uma vida feliz e honesta. A sociedade civil é, pois, menos uma sociedade de vida comum do que uma sociedade de honra e de virtude.”
PAI & FILHO, CARA & COROA: “Todos vemos que não é pelos bens exteriores que se adquirem e conservam as virtudes, mas sim que é pelos talentos e virtudes que se adquirem e conservam os bens exteriores e que, quer se faça consistir a felicidade no prazer ou na virtude, ou em ambos, os que têm inteligência e costumes excelentes a alcançam mais facilmente com uma fortuna medíocre do que os que têm mais do que o necessário e carecem dos outros bens.” “Os bens da alma não são apenas honestos, mas também úteis, e quanto mais excederem a medida comum, mais terão utilidade.” “A felicidade é muito diferente da boa fortuna. Vêm-nos da fortuna os bens exteriores, mas ninguém é justo ou prudente graças a ela, nem por seu meio.”
“Que vida preferir, a que toma parte do governo e dos negócios públicos ou a vida retirada e livre de todos os embaraços do gênero? Não entra no plano da Polítíca determinar o quê pode convir a cada indivíduo, mas sim o que convém à pluralidade. Em nossa Étíca, aliás, tratamos do primeiro ponto.”
AS MELHORES CONSTITUIÇÕES APUD GRÉCIA ANTIGA: “Em Esparta e em Creta, a quase totalidade de sua disciplina e de suas numerosas regras é dirigida para a guerra. Em todas as nações que têm o poder de crescer, entre os citas, entre os persas, entre os trácios, entre os celtas, não há nenhuma profissão mais estimada do que a das armas. Em alguns lugares, existem leis para estimular a coragem guerreira. Em Cartago, as pessoas são decoradas com tantos anéis quantas foram as campanhas que fizeram. Na Macedônia, uma lei pretendia que aqueles que não houvessem matado nenhum inimigo tivessem que andar de cabresto. Entre os citas, aquele que estivesse nesse caso sofria a afronta de não beber à roda, na taça das refeições solenes. A Ibéria, nação belicosa, levanta ao redor das tumbas tantos obeliscos quantos inimigos o defunto matou.”
“Não é ofício nem do médico nem do piloto persuadir ou fazer violência, um a seus doentes, o outro a seus marinheiros. Mas muitos parecem considerar a dominação como o objeto da política, e aquilo que não cremos nem justo nem útil para nós não temos vergonha de tentar contra os outros.” “Se a natureza estabeleceu esta distinção, pelo menos não se deve tentar dominar a todos, mas apenas aos que só servem para serem submetidos. É assim que não se vai à caça para pegar os homens e comê-los ou matá-los, mas apenas para pegar os animais selvagens que são comestíveis.”
“não é exato elevar a inação acima da vida ativa, já que a felicidade consiste em ação, e as ações dos homens justos e moderados têm sempre fins honestos.”
“Entre semelhantes, a honestidade e a justiça consistem em que cada um tenha a sua vez. Apenas isto conserva a igualdade. A desigualdade entre iguais e as distinções entre semelhantes são contra a natureza e, por conseguinte, contra a honestidade. Se, porém, se encontrasse alguém que ultrapassasse todos os outros em mérito e em poder e tivesse provado seu valor com grandes façanhas, seria belo ceder a ele e justo obedecer-lhe. Mas não basta ter mérito, é preciso ter bastante energia e atividade para estar certo do êxito.”
“Como a maioria dos homens tem mania de dominar os outros para obter todas as comodidades, Tíbron e todos os que escreveram sobre o governo de Esparta parecem admirar seu legislador por ter aumentado muito seu império, tendo exercitado a nação nos perigos da guerra. Mas, agora que os espartanos não dominam mais, deixaram de ser felizes, e seu legislador de merecer sua reputação. Não é ridículo que, persistindo sob as leis de Licurgo e não tendo nada que os impedisse de valer-se delas, eles tenham deixado escapar sua felicidade?”
“Não é um sinal de sabedoria para o legislador treinar seu povo para vencer seus vizinhos. Disso só podem resultar grandes males, e aquele que for bem-sucedido não vai deixar de investir contra a sua própria pátria e, se puder, de assenhorear-se dela. Essa é a censura que os espartanos fazem ao rei Pausânias, cuja ambição não se contentou com este alto grau de honra.”
“Ao fazer a guerra, vários Estados se conservaram, mas, assim que conquistaram a superioridade, entraram em decadência, semelhantes ao ferro que se enferruja pela inação.”
“Não há repouso para os escravos, diz o provérbio. Ora, os que não têm coragem para se expor aos perigos tornam-se escravos de seus agressores.”
“os que parecem felizes e, semelhantes aos habitantes das Ilhas Afortunadas de que falam os poetas, gozam de tudo o que pode contribuir para a felicidade, precisam mais do que os outros de justiça e de temperança. Quanto mais opulência e lazer tiverem, mais precisarão de filosofia, de moderação e de justiça, e o Estado que quiser ser feliz e florescente deve inculcar-lhes estas virtudes o máximo possível. Se há algo de ignóbil em não saber gozar das riquezas, há bem mais ainda em fazer mau uso delas quando só se tem isso para fazer. É revoltante que homens, aliás, dignos de estima nos trabalhos e nos perigos da guerra se comportem como escravos no descanso e na paz.”
“há dois tipos de hábitos, uns apaixonados, ou provindos da sensibilidade, outros intelectuais. E, assim como o corpo é gerado antes da alma, a parte carente de razão o é, igualmente, antes da razoável. Isto se observa pelos rasgos de cólera, pelos desejos e pelas vontades mostradas pelas crianças tão logo nascem.”
“deve preocupar-se com a sucessão das crianças; que não haja entre elas e os pais uma distância de idade grande demais, pois neste caso os filhos não podem mostrar seu reconhecimento aos pais na velhice, nem os pais podem ajudar seus filhos tanto quanto preciso.”
“O final da procriação ocorre, para os homens, aos 70 anos; para as mulheres, aos 50. Sua união deve começar na mesma proporção. A dos adolescentes não vale nada para a progenitura. Em todas as espécies animais, os frutos prematuros de sujeitos jovens demais, sobretudo se se tratar da fêmea, são imperfeitos, fracos e de pequena estatura. O mesmo ocorre com a espécie humana. Observa-se, com efeito, esta imperfeição em todos os lugares em que as pessoas se casam jovens demais. Só nascem abortos.” Continuando com a proporção 70/50: 20/14, 30/21, 40/28, 50/35…
“Aquelas que conhecem cedo demais o uso das familiaridades conjugais são de ordinário mais lascivas. Por outro lado, nada retarda ou detém mais depressa o crescimento dos moços jovens do que se entregar cedo demais ao relacionamento com as mulheres, sem esperar que a natureza tenha neles elaborado completamente o licor prolífico. Há para o crescimento uma época precisa, além da qual não se cresce mais.”
“verdadeira idade para casar as moças é aos 18 anos e para os homens aos 37, aproximadamente. Com isso a conjunção dos corpos se fará em pleno vigor, e a geração, depois, terminará num tempo conveniente tanto para um como para outro. Da mesma forma, a sucessão dos filhos a seus pais estará melhor colocada, se nascerem convenientemente no intervalo entre a força da idade e o declínio, que começa por volta dos 70.” [!!!]
“Quanto à estação do ano própria à geração, o inverno é a que mais convém, como hoje se observa quase em toda parte.” “os físicos ensinam que ventos são favoráveis ao ato sexual; por exemplo, eles preferem o vento do norte ao do sul.”
“Diremos somente que a compleição atlética não é útil nem à saúde, nem à geração, nem aos empregos civis; o mesmo ocorre com os corpos fracos, acostumados ao regime médico.”
Pedonomia: parte da pedagogia que estipula as regras (formas) da aplicação da pedagogia, i.e., do conteúdo em si da educação.
“Se o corpo precisa de movimento, o espírito necessita de repouso e de tranqüilidade. No ventre da mãe os filhos recebem, como os frutos da terra, a impressão do bem e do mal.”
“Sobre o destino das crianças recém-nascidas, deve haver uma lei que decida os que serão expostos e os que serão criados. Não seja permitido criar nenhuma que nasça mutilada, isto é, sem algum de seus membros; determine-se, pelo menos, para evitar a sobrecarga do número excessivo, se não for permitido pelas leis do país abandoná-los, até que número de filhos se pode ter e se faça abortarem as mães antes que seu fruto tenha sentimento e vida, pois é nisto que se distingue a supressão perdoável da que é atroz.” Até eugênicos antigos têm escrúpulos morais “anteprotestantes”…
“Desde os primeiros momentos do nascimento, é bom acostumar as crianças ao frio; isto faz um bem infinito à saúde e dispõe às funções militares.”
“Na idade seguinte, até os cinco anos, não é conveniente dar nada para as crianças aprenderem, nem submetê-las a qualquer trabalho. Isto poderia impedir seu crescimento. Basta mantê-las em movimento para preservar seus corpos da preguiça e do peso. Este movimento deve consistir apenas nas funções da vida e nas brincadeiras, tomando cuidado somente para que elas não sejam nem desonestas nem penosas, nem destituídas demais de ação.”
“Em certos lugares, comete-se o erro de proibir à criança o choro e os movimentos expansivos. Todos estes atos servem para seu desenvolvimento e fazem parte, por assim dizer, dos exercícios corporais. O ato de reter a respiração dá força aos que trabalham. Isto também ocorre no próprio esforço das crianças para gritar.”
“impedir muita conversa e familiaridade, sobretudo com os escravos.”
SIGA SEU MESTRE: “Se proibimos as conversas indecentes, com mais forte razão proibiremos as pinturas e as exibições do mesmo gênero. Os magistrados, portanto, não admitirão nem estátuas, nem pinturas lúbricas, a não ser as de certas divindades cujo culto a lei reserva aos homens adultos, a quem ela permite sacrifícios, tanto por eles quanto por suas mulheres e crianças.”
“Também se deve proibir aos jovens os teatros e sobretudo a comédia, até que tenham atingido a idade de participar das refeições públicas e a boa educação os tenha colocado em condições de experimentar impunemente a bebedeira dos banquetes, sem contrair a embriaguez ou os outros vícios que a acompanham. Passaremos rapidamente por esta matéria, para voltar a ela uma outra vez e discutir se este costume deve ser mantido, e como.”
“Não há de se aprovar, segundo cremos, a partilha que fazem certas pessoas que dividem toda a vida de 7 em 7 anos. Mais vale seguir o ritmo da natureza. Ela apenas esboçou suas obras. A obra da educação, assim como a de todas as artes, deve unicamente completar o que falta ao ser das obras da natureza.”
“Como não há senão um fim comum a todo o Estado, só deve haver uma mesma educação para todos os súditos. Ela deve ser feita não em particular, como hoje, quando cada um cuida de seus filhos, que educa segundo sua fantasia e conforme lhe agrada; ela deve ser feita em público. Tudo o que é comum deve ter exercícios comuns. É preciso, ademais, que todo cidadão se convença de que ninguém é de si mesmo, mas todos pertencem ao Estado, de que cada um é parte e que, portanto, o governo de cada parte deve naturalmente ter como modelo o governo do todo.”
“Não se sabe se se deve ensinar às crianças as coisas úteis à vida ou as que conduzem à virtude, ou as altas ciências, que se podem dispensar. Cada uma destas opiniões tem seus partidários. Não há nem mesmo nada de certo a respeito da virtude, não sendo o mesmo gênero de virtude apreciado unanimemente. Também se diverge sobre o gênero de exercícios a praticar.”
“Não é fora de propósito conceder algum tempo a certas ciências, mas entregar-se a elas por inteiro e querer ser consumado nelas não deixa de ter seus inconvenientes e pode ser nocivo às graças da imaginação.”
“Quanto à música, sua utilidade não é igualmente reconhecida. Muitos hoje a aprendem apenas por prazer. Mas os antigos fizeram dela, desde os primeiros tempos, uma parte da educação, pois a natureza não procura apenas dar exatidão às ações, mas também dignidade ao repouso. A música é o princípio de todos os encantos da vida.”
“Se possível, é melhor descartar o jogo entre as ocupações. Quem trabalha precisa de descanso: o jogo não foi imaginado senão para isto. O trabalho é acompanhado de fadiga e de esforços. É preciso entremeá-lo convenientemente de recreações, como um remédio.”
“Não que ela seja necessária: ela não o é. Não que ela tenha tanta importância quanto a escrita, que serve para o comércio, para a administração doméstica, para as ciências e para a maioria das funções civis, ou quanto a pintura, que nos permite julgar melhor a obra dos artistas, ou quanto a ginástica, que ajuda a saúde e o desenvolvimento das forças; a música não faz nada disso.Mas ela serve pelo menos para passar agradavelmente o lazer. É por isso que ela foi posta na moda. Ela pareceu a seus inventores a diversão mais conveniente às pessoas livres.”
“Existem povos que não evitam os massacres e são ávidos de carne humana, mas que, quando atacados, são tudo, menos valentes; por exemplo, os aqueus e os heniocos do Ponto Euxino, e outras nações mais distantes que pertencem às terras da mesma região, sendo que as outras preferem a profissão de ladrões.”
“Aqueles que expõem em demasia os jovens aos exercícios do ginásio e os deixam sem instrução sobre as coisas mais necessárias, fazem deles, na verdade, apenas reles guarda-costas, que servem no máximo para uma das funções da vida civil, uma função, porém, que, se consultarmos a razão, é a menor de todas. Não é por suas proezas antigas, mas sim pelas do presente que devem ser julgados.”
“até a puberdade só se praticarão exercícios leves, sem sujeitar os corpos aos excessos de alimentação, nem aos trabalhos violentos, por temor de que isso impeça o crescimento. A prova do efeito funesto deste regime forçado é que entre os que venceram nos jogos olímpicos em sua juventude dificilmente se encontrarão dois ou três que também venceram numa idade mais avançada. Por que isto? Porque a violência dos exercícios a que se tinham submetido desde a infância esgotara sua força e seu vigor.”
PRÉ-ROUSSEAU: “Com efeito, não se deve atormentar ao mesmo tempo o espírito e o corpo. Desses exercícios, um impede o outro; o do corpo é nocivo ao espírito, e o do espírito ao corpo.”
“Se estiver em nosso poder escolhê-la segundo o desejo, a situação da Cidade deve ser próxima do mar e do campo; assim, a ajuda seria fácil de um lugar para outro e de toda parte, assim como a exportação e a importação das mercadorias. Haveria comodidade para transportar a madeira e todos os outros materiais do país.” “a comodidade do mar faz com que se envie para o exterior ou se receba na cidade uma multidão de mercadores, o que é igualmente pernicioso para o Estado.” “Somente a atração do lucro faz com que estabeleça em seu território mercados abertos a todos. Há aí uma avareza condenável, e não é assim que um Estado ou uma cidade devem praticar o comércio.”
“Os soldados da marinha, pelo contrário, são livres e, assim como seus oficiais, provêm da infantaria. São eles que comandam os marinheiros [que, diferente dos soldados da marinha, não são cidadãos]. Quanto à tripulação, é completada com camponeses e lavradores dos arredores. É o que se pratica em certos lugares, por exemplo Heracléia, cujas galeras estão sempre bem-tripuladas, embora a cidade seja muito menor do que várias outras.”
“se as águas são raras ou de diversas qualidades, deve-se separar, como se faz nas cidades bem-cuidadas, as que são boas para beber das que podem servir para outros usos.”
“no que se refere às casas particulares, elas serão bem mais agradáveis e mais cômodas se seu espaço for bem-distribuído, com uma estrutura à maneira moderna, ao gosto de Hipódamos.¹”
¹ Hipódamos de Mileto foi um polímata do século V a.C., tido como fundador da concepção de Planejamento Urbano, que estendia a preocupação da arquitetura para toda a polis em si. Planejou pela primeira vez a simetria geométrica da disposição das ruas e das casas e, ao mesmo tempo, a existência de um centro despovoado e amplamente aberto, i.e., a Ágora. As casas que ele planejou eram mais espaçosas e tinham dois andares.
“Não se alinharão todas as ruas de um extremo ao outro, mas apenas certas partes, tanto quanto o permitir a segurança e o exigir a decoração.”
“Embora não seja muito honroso opor muros de defesa a guerreiros da mesma têmpera que não têm uma grande vantagem numérica, é possível que os sitiantes consigam um tal acréscimo de forças que todo valor humano, mas com poucas pessoas, não possa resistir-lhes. Portanto, se não se quer morrer, nem se expor ao ultraje, deve-se considerar como uma das medidas mais autorizadas pelas leis da guerra manter suas muralhas no melhor estado de fortificação, principalmente hoje, quando se imaginaram tantos instrumentos e máquinas engenhosas para atacar fortificações. Não querer cercar as cidades com muros é como abrir o país às incursões dos inimigos e retirar os obstáculos de sua frente, ou como se recusar a fechar com muros as casas particulares, de medo que os que nelas habitam se tornem medrosos.”
“é claro que num Estado tão perfeitamente constituído que não admita como cidadãos senão pessoas de bem, não apenas sob certos aspectos, mas integralmente virtuosos, não devemos contar entre eles aqueles que exercem profissões mecânicas ou comerciais, sendo esse gênero de vida ignóbil e contrário à virtude” TERCEIRA REPETIÇÃO!
“primeiro, na juventude, o comando da força armada para defender o Estado; depois, quando maduros, a autoridade para governá-lo.”
“Convém não ligar ao culto divino senão cidadãos, e não se devem educar para o sacerdócio nem lavradores que puxam arado, nem trabalhadores que saem de sua forja. Tendo a universalidade dos cidadãos sido dividida em duas classes, a dos homens de guerra e a dos homens de lei, é aí que se devem tomar os ministros da religião.”
“Esta necessidade de dividir o Estado em classes diversas, segundo a variedade das funções, e de separar os homens de guerra dos lavradores não é uma invenção de hoje, nem um segredo recém-descoberto pelos filósofos que se ocupam de política. Tal distinção foi introduzida no Egito pelas leis de Sesóstris e em Creta pelas de Minos.¹ Elas ainda subsistem atualmente nestes lugares.”
¹ Afinal de contas Minos ter existido como homem de carne e osso é hipótese tão verossímil quanto com Licurgo e Sólon?
“Os sábios do país contam que um certo Italus foi rei na Enótria. Os habitantes tomaram seu nome e, em vez de enotrianos, se chamaram italianos. O nome de Itália ficou também para a costa da Europa entre o golfo de Cilética e o golfo Lamético, distantes meia jornada um do outro. Segundo estes historiadores, foi Italus quem, de pastores errantes, tornou os enotrianos lavradores sedentários. Entre outras leis que lhes deu, estabeleceu pela primeira vez que comessem juntos. Este costume ainda hoje se observa entre alguns de seus descendentes, assim como algumas outras de suas leis. Os ópicos, antigamente chamados ou cognominados ausônios, nome que lhes ficou, habitavam a costa do Tirreno; e os caonianos, descendentes dos enotrianos, a praia chamada Sirtes, entre a Lapígia e a Jônia.”
“É bem crível que muitas outras coisas foram inventadas várias vezes, talvez ao infinito, na longa seqüência dos séculos. Ao que parece, inicialmente a necessidade inventou as coisas necessárias; em seguida, por adjunção, as que servem para um maior conforto e para ornamento. O mesmo ocorre com a legislação e as constituições civis. Podemos conjeturar como elas são antigas pelo exemplo dos egípcios, que remontam à mais alta antiguidade e desde sempre tiveram leis e uma constituição. Cabe a nós aproveitar suas boas invenções e lhes acrescentar o que lhes falta.”
“Todos concordam que as mesas comuns e as refeições públicas convêm às cidades bem-organizadas politicamente. Isto também nos agrada, mas é preciso que nelas todos os cidadãos sejam recebidos gratuitamente; caso contrário, não será fácil para aqueles que só têm o estrito necessário fornecer a sua parte e ainda arcar com o sustento de sua família.”
* * *
DA CÉLEBRE DIVISÃO ENTRE AS FORMAS DE GOVERNO
MODALIDADES IDEAIS: “Chamamos monarquia (1) o Estado em que o governo que visa a este interesse comum pertence a um só; aristocracia (2), aquele em que ele é confiado a mais de um, denominação tomada ou do fato de que as poucas pessoas a que o governo é confiado são escolhidas entre as mais honestas, ou de que elas só têm em vista o maior bem do Estado e de seus membros [aristo+cracia = governo dos melhores]; república (3), aquele em que a multidão governa para a utilidade pública; este nome também é comum a todos os Estados.”
MODALIDADES CORROMPIDAS: “A tirania (4) não é, de fato, senão a monarquia voltada para a utilidade do monarca; a oligarquia (5), a aristocracia voltada para a utilidade dos ricos; a democracia (6), a república voltada para a utilidade dos pobres.”
“A oligarquia estabeleceu-se desde os tempos mais remotos em todos os lugares que tinham na cavalaria a sua principal força, como os eretrianos, os de Cálcides, os magnésios do Meandro e vários outros povos asiáticos. Montava-se a cavalo para combater os inimigos dos arredores.”
1. MONARQUIA
“No Estado de Esparta,¹ p.ex., há uma monarquia das mais legítimas, mas o poder do rei não é absoluto, a não ser quando o monarca estiver fora de seus Estados e em situação de guerra, pois então ele tem a autoridade suprema sobre seu exército. Além disso, ele tem no interior a superintendência do culto e das coisas sagradas. Esta espécie de monarquia não é, pois, senão um generalato perpétuo, com plenos poderes, sem porém ter o direito de vida e de morte, a não ser em certo domínio ou, nas expedições militares, quando se está combatendo, como era costume antigamente. É o que se chama lei do golpe de mão. Homero refere-se a ela. Segundo ele, Agamêmnon, na Assembléia do povo, tolerava as palavras menos respeitosas. Fora dali, de armas na mão, tinha o poder de morte sobre os soldados delinqüentes.”
¹ Platão e Montesquieu, por exemplo, recusam o status de monarquia a Esparta/Lacedemônia.
“O comando militar inamovível é, portanto, um primeiro tipo de monarquia, sendo umas hereditárias e outras eletivas.”
DESACERTO NOS CRITÉRIOS: “Tendo os bárbaros naturalmente a alma mais servil do que os gregos e os asiáticos, eles suportam mais do que os europeus, sem murmúrios, que sejam governados pelos senhores. É por isso que essas monarquias, embora despóticas, não deixam de ser estáveis e sólidas, fundadas que são na lei e transmissíveis de pai para filho. Pela mesma razão, sua guarda é real, e não tirânica, pois os reis são protegidos por cidadãos armados, ao passo que os déspotas recorrem a estrangeiros. Aqueles governam de acordo com a lei súditos de boa vontade; estes, pessoas que só obedecem contrafeitas. Aqueles são protegidos pelos cidadãos; estes, contra os cidadãos. São, portanto, dois tipos diferentes de monarquia.”
Antes do aparecimento da figura de um César, A. prefigura a instituição do ditador da República Romana final, no plano teóricoa, como sendo um governo monárquico não-tirânico, posto que legal. É verdade que matiza este raciocínio depois: “Estes principados são, portanto, ao mesmo tempo despóticos pela maneira com que a autoridade é exercida e reais pela eleição e submissão espontânea do povo.” Este último critério transformaria quase todos os governos atuais da Terra em monarquias constitucionais, quando vemos não passar de tiranias, se é para dicotomizar entre as duas! Hitler como um monarca constitucional seria uma piada de humor negro. Mas é ao que a taxonomia aristotélica conduz…
“Os reis dos primeiros séculos tinham autoridade sobre todos os negócios de Estado, tanto dentro quanto fora, e para sempre. A partir daí, quer porque abandonaram por si mesmos uma parte da autoridade, quer porque tenham sido despojados dela pelo povo, foram reduzidos em alguns Estados à simples qualidade de soberanos sacrificadores ou pontífices e, nos lugares onde se conservou o nome de rei, à simples faculdade de comandar os exércitos além das fronteiras.”
2. ARISTOCRACIA
“O nome de aristocracia convém perfeitamente ao regime que já mencionamos acima, pois não se deve, com efeito, dar este nome senão à magistratura composta de pessoas de bem sem restrição e não a essas boas pessoas em que toda a retidão se limita ao patriotismo.”
Aristóteles perde a mão em suas classificações, sem uma exceção sequer! “Há um ar de aristocracia em toda parte onde se observa a virtude, embora sejam prezadas também a riqueza e a popularidade, como entre os espartanos, que unem a popularidade às considerações devidas à virtude. São estas duas espécies de aristocracia, além da primeira [essas subdivisões não guardam o menor interesse], as únicas a merecerem o nome de excelente e perfeita República [no sentido lato: todos os seis governos!].”
3. “REPÚBLICA” (é o próprio Aristóteles que coloca o título entre aspas!)
“Reservamo-la para o final [meio!] não por ser uma depravação da aristocracia, de que acabamos de falar (pois é normal começar, como fizemos, pelas formas puras e depois ir às formas desviadas), mas porque ela reúne o que há de bom em dois regimes degenerados, a oligarquia e a democracia.”
“Na oligarquia, a lei não concede aos pobres nenhum salário para administrar a justiça e estabelece penas contra os ricos, caso se recusem a fazer parte de uma assembléia; na democracia, a lei dá um salário aos pobres mas não aplica nenhuma pena aos ricos. A mistura conveniente ao Estado, que ocupa o meio entre estes governos e é composta pelos dois, é conceder o salário aos pobres e aplicar a multa aos ricos.”“É democrático, por exemplo, escolher os magistrados por sorteio; oligárquico, elegê-los; democrático, não considerar a renda”
SÓ PIORA: “É o que se observa em Esparta: muitos, com efeito, a colocam na classe das democracias, porque ela tem muitas instituições dessa natureza. [!!!] Na educação das crianças, a comida é a mesma para os filhos dos ricos e para os dos pobres, a mesma instrução, a mesma severidade no trato; na idade seguinte, o mesmo gênero de vida quando se tornam homens.”
Apenas definições negativas e compósitas de “república”, além de ininteligíveis! Desistam de se apoiar nesses conceitos aristotélico, pelo BEM de todos nós!
4. TIRANIA
“Quanto mais a monarquia se aproxima idealmente do governo celeste, mais sua alteração é detestável. A monarquia não passa de um vão nome, se não se distingue pela grande excelência de quem reina. O vício mais diametralmente contrário a sua instituição é a tirania. Portanto, é também o pior dos governos.”
5. OLIGARQUIA
“Os postos são concedidos aos mais ricos e nomeiam a si próprios em caso de vacância. Se a escolha se fizesse entre todos, seria aristocrática; o que a torna oligárquica é que ela se faz numa classe determinada. Todavia, não sendo poderosos o suficiente para governar sem leis, transformam em leis a preferência que se arrogam.
Se seu número diminuir e sua riqueza tiver novos aumentos, forma-se um segundo grau de oligarquia, no qual, aproveitando a ascendência que adquiriram por seus postos, fazem com que se ordene por uma nova lei que seus filhos serão seus sucessores.”
“Tendo aumentado ainda mais sua riqueza e seu crédito, a potência dos oligarcas aproxima-se da monarquia. Este vício é semelhante tanto à tirania que se introduz nas monarquias quanto à última espécie de democracia, de que falaremos. Chama-se dinastia ou, mais exatamente, politirania.”
6. DEMOCRACIA
INDIRETA A PLATÃO? “Não se deve, como costumavam fazer certas pessoas, definir simplesmente a democracia como o governo em que a maioria domina. Nas próprias oligarquias e em qualquer outra parte, é sempre a maioria que se sobressai.”
“Se os poderes se distribuíssem de acordo com a estatura [!], como acontece, segundo certos autores, na Etiópia, ou de acordo com a beleza [Ganimedolândia ou quiçá Ilha dos alcibíadas], haveria oligarquia, porque a beleza e a alta estatura não pertencem à maioria.”
Aristóteles se esquece do espírito de um governo e da tendência das sociedades. Procura uma classificação tirando fotos, ou seja, espúria e ingênua.
“Uns e outros abundam em alguns lugares, como os pescadores em Tarento e em Bizâncio, os marinheiros em Atenas, os negociantes na ilha de Egina e em Quios, os barqueiros em Tenedos. Devem-se juntar a eles os trabalhadores manuais e todos os que não são abastados o suficiente para ficar sem fazer nada, os que não nasceram de pai e mãe livres e toda espécie de populaça semelhante.”
“Como o Estado não pode existir sem magistrados e precisa de homens capazes de realizar suas funções, precisa também de pessoas que executem suas ordens e estejam encarregadas do serviço, quer para sempre, quer alienadamente.”
A CARICATURA ARISTOTÉLICA (JULGA QUE NÃO HÁ DINÂMICA DE CLASSES OU ESTRATOS, E QUE QUEM ASCENDE AO PODER NÃO ENRIQUECE NEM SE DISTINGUE EM POUCO TEMPO): “A quarta é aquela que se introduziu em último lugar nas Cidades que se tornaram maiores e mais opulentas do que eram nos primeiros tempos. Ela exibe a igualdade absoluta, isto é, a lei coloca os pobres no mesmo nível que os ricos e pretende que uns não tenham mais direito ao governo do que os outros, mas que a condição destes e daqueles seja semelhante. Pois se a alma da democracia consiste, como pensam alguns, na liberdade, sendo todos iguais a este respeito, devem ter a mesma parte nos bens civis e principalmente nos grandes cargos; e, como o povo é superior em número e o que agrada à pluralidade é lei, tal Estado deve necessariamente ser popular. Mas, se todos são indistintamente admitidos no governo, é a massa que se sobressai e, sendo os pobres assalariados, podem deixar o trabalho e permanecer ociosos, não os retendo em casa a preocupação com seus próprios negócios. É, pelo contrário, um obstáculo para os ricos que não assistem às Assembléias nem se preocupam com o papel de juiz. Resulta daí que o Estado cai no domínio da multidão indigente e se vê subtraído ao império das leis. Os demagogos calcam-nas com os pés e fazem predominar os decretos. Tal gentalha é desconhecida nas democracias que a lei governa. Os melhores cidadãos têm ali o primeiro lugar. Mas onde as leis não têm força pululam os demagogos. O povo torna-se tirano.Trata-se de um ser composto de várias cabeças; elas dominam não cada uma separadamente, mas todas juntas. Não se sabe se é desta multidão ou do governo alternado e singular de vários de que fala Homero quando diz que <não é bom ter vários senhores>. De qualquer modo, o povo, tendo sacudido o jugo da lei, quer governar só e se torna déspota. Seu governo não difere em nada da tirania. Os bajuladores são honrados, os homens de bem sujeitados. O mesmo arbítrio reina nos decretos do povo e nas ordens dos tiranos. Trata-se dos mesmos costumes. O que fazem os bajuladores de côrte junto a estes, fazem os demagogos junto ao povo. Gozam do mesmo crédito.”
“Se pretendermos que a democracia seja uma das formas de governo, então não se deverá nem mesmo dar este nome a esse caos em que tudo é governado pelos decretos do dia, não sendo então nem universal nem perpétua nenhuma medida.”
* * *
Sobre a divisão dos poderes, existente em qualquer forma de governo, em tempos bem anteriores a Montesquieu e às noções modernas…
1. ???
Devo ter ficado burro, porque me tornei incapaz de entender Aristóteles: “No que se chama democracia, principalmente na de hoje, em que o povo é senhor de tudo, até das leis, seria bom, para se conseguirem boas deliberações, que as Assembléias fossem ordenadas e regulamentadas como os tribunais das oligarquias, ou ainda melhor, se possível. Ali são aplicadas penas aos que são nomeados para a judicatura, a fim de obrigá-los a julgar, ao passo que na democracia é proposto um salário aos pobres. Ora, delibera-se melhor quando todos deliberam em comum, o povo com os nobres e os nobres com a multidão.”
“o corpo deliberativo, o verdadeiro soberano do Estado.” Quem é o <corpo deliberativo> (que deveria ser o título deste tópico 1)? Por eliminação (categorias a seguir), seria o poder legislativo. Mas pelo que se lê acima esta categoria ou corpo ou poder é uma composição caótica de tudo que entendemos por poder executivo, legislativo e judiciário hoje…
2. O PODER EXECUTIVO
“Já é difícil determinar quem são os que devem chamar-se magistrados. A sociedade civil precisa de vários servidores. O nome de magistrados não convém a todos os que são nomeados por eleição ou por sorteio. É o caso dos sacerdotes, sendo seu ministério de natureza diferente da dos ofícios políticos, dos diretores de coro, dos arautos, dos embaixadores, embora também eles sejam eletivos.” “É de pouca utilidade o modo como são chamados, já que sua denominação, que é discutível, ainda não ficou bem decidida. Mas não é de pouca importância bem distinguir os seus atributos.”
“O primeiro cuidado do governo é fazer com que se encontrem nos mercados os víveres necessários. Para tanto, deve haver um magistrado que cuide de que tudo seja feito de boa fé e que a decência seja observada.” O Brasil de hoje já não atende ao primeiro requisito de Aristóteles…
“O oficio que se segue imediatamente é de primeira necessidade, mas também de enorme dificuldade: é o de executor das sentenças de condenação, o de pregoeiro de bens apreendidos e o de guarda das prisões. É difícil prestar-se a estas funções por causa dos ódios a que elas expõem, e não se aceitam semelhantes trabalhos a menos que sejam muito lucrativos [ou que estejamos falando de indivíduos sádicos]. Quando são aceitos, não se ousa seguir o rigor da lei, que é, porém, algo indispensável. De nada serviria sustentar uma causa e obter uma sentença se não houvesse ninguém para fazer com que ela fosse obedecida. Sem a execução, é impossível que a sociedade subsista.”
“Se a mesma pessoa condena e faz executar, é alvo de um duplo ódio. Se se depara com o mesmo executor em toda parte, trata-se de um meio de fazer com que ele seja universalmente odiado.
Em vários lugares, a profissão de carcereiro é separada da de executor, como em Atenas, no tribunal dos Onze. Esta separação é uma atenuação não menos necessária do que a precedente. Tais ofícios têm a desvantagem de serem evitados pelas pessoas de bem tanto quanto possível, e não é seguro confiá-los a malandros. Estes precisam muito mais ser eles próprios vigiados do que vigiarem. Portanto, estas funções não devem pertencer a um cargo fixo, nem estar sempre nas mesmas mãos, mas sim ser realizadas ora por um, ora por outro, principalmente nos lugares em que a guarda da cidade é confiada a companhias de jovens.”
POLÍCIA: “Depois destes ofícios de maior urgência, vêm outros não menos necessários, mas de uma ordem mais elevada e de um maior valor representativo, pois exigem mais experiência e necessitam de maior confiança.” “Nos pequenos [lugares], basta para todos um comandante em chefe. Chamam-se estes chefes Estrategos ou Polemicas, a cavalaria, a infantaria ligeira, os arqueiros, a marinha têm cada qual seus oficiais particulares chamados Navarcas (almirantes), Hiparcas (generais de cavalaria), Taxiarcas (coronéis), e seus oficiais subalternos, Trierarcas, Locagos, Filarcas e outros subordinados, todos ocupados única e exclusivamente com os trabalhos de guerra.”
“Embora nem todas as funções de que acabamos de falar participem do manejo do dinheiro público, mas como algumas estão amplamente envolvidas nisso, é preciso que haja acima delas um outro magistrado que, sem que ele mesmo administre coisa alguma, faça com que os outros prestem contas de sua administração e a corrijam. Uns o chamam auditor; outros, inspetor de contas; outros, grande procurador.
Além disso, uma magistratura suprema de que dependam todas as outras é, enfim, necessária. Ela tem ao mesmo tempo o direito ordinário de impor os impostos e de inspecionar a sua percepção. Em toda parte onde o povo é senhor, ela preside às Assembléias (pois é preciso que aqueles que as convocam tenham nelas a principal autoridade). Em alguns lugares, ela é chamada a Probulia, ou Consulta, porque prepara as deliberações. Nas democracias, em que a massa decide soberanamente, dão-lhe o nome de senado.” Realmente é curioso: senado executor!
“Recapitulando toda esta exposição, constataremos que todos os ofícios ou ministérios necessários têm por objeto quer as honras devidas ao Ser supremo, quer o serviço militar, quer a administração das finanças, vale dizer, a receita ou a despesa das rendas públicas, quer o abastecimento dos mercados ou a polícia das cidades, dos portos e dos campos, além da administração da justiça, o tabelionato dos contratos, a execução das sentenças, a guarda das prisões, a auditoria e o exame das contas, a reforma dos abusos e das prevaricações, enfim, as deliberações sobre os negócios de Estado.
Os povos que gozam de maior lazer e de uma paz profunda, ou que estão em condições de sentir o secreto encanto do bem-estar e de obtê-lo para si mesmos, têm ofícios próprios, como a Nomofilacia ou guarda das leis, a inspeção do comportamento das mulheres, a disciplina das crianças, o reitorado dos ginásios, a intendência dos exercícios ginásticos, das festas de Baco e outros espetáculos do mesmo gênero.
Destes ofícios, alguns – como a disciplina das mulheres e das crianças – não convêm à democracia, cujo povo quase só é composto de pobres que, não tendo condições de se fazer servir por outros, são forçados a empregar suas mulheres e suas crianças como domésticos.”
“Nas cidades pequenas, a falta de gente força a que se confiram vários ofícios à mesma pessoa. Não se encontram pessoas nem para todas as funções, nem para a sucessão de cada uma delas. Às vezes, porém, elas precisam das mesmas magistraturas e da mesma constituição que as grandes, com a única diferença de que umas são com freqüência forçadas a voltar sempre às mesmas pessoas, e as outras só são obrigadas a isto após longos intervalos. É assim que se suspendem em um mesmo lustre várias velas.”
“É própria da aristocracia a inspeção das mulheres e das crianças. Tal função não é nem democrática, nem oligárquica. Como, com efeito, impedir as mulheres dos pobres de saírem ou censurar as mulheres dos oligarcas, acostumadas a viver no luxo?”
“Estas diversidades podem combinar-se duas a duas, de modo que tais magistrados sejam eleitos por tais cidadãos e os outros por todos; uns escolhidos dentre eles, outros tirados de tal classe; uns escolhidos por sorteio, outros por eleição.”
3. O PODER JUDICIÁRIO
“Além destes tribunais [sete], existem juízes para os casos mínimos, tais como os de 1 até 5 dracmas, ou pouco mais, pois, se é preciso julgar estas queixas, elas não merecem ser levadas diante dos grandes tribunais.”
Nada de relevo neste tópico. Aliás, a obra como um todo se mostra fraca, indigna do maior discípulo de Platão.
* * *
“Os povos que habitam as regiões frias, principalmente da Europa, são pessoas corajosas, mas de pouca inteligência e poucos talentos. Vivem melhor em liberdade, pouco civilizados, de resto, e incapazes de governar seus vizinhos.
Os asiáticos são mais inteligentes e mais próprios para as artes, mas nem um pouco corajosos, e por isso mesmo são sujeitados por quase todos e estão sempre sob o domínio de algum senhor.” Um preconceito eterno?
“Situados entre as duas regiões, os gregos também participam de ambas. (…) Poderiam mandar no mundo inteiro se formassem um só povo e tivessem um só governo.”
PSICOLOGIA AGORA? “O coração é, de fato, a faculdade da alma de que procede a benevolência e pela qual nós amamos; quando, porém, ele se crê desprezado, irrita-se mais contra as pessoas que são conhecidas e com as quais convive do que contra os desconhecidos.”
PSEUDO-OVO DE COLOMBO: “Pois não é suficiente conhecer a melhor forma, é preciso ver, em cada caso particular, qual é aquela que é possível estabelecer”
“Corrigir a constituição que existe não é menos incômodo do que instituir outras, assim como é tão difícil perder quanto contrair hábitos.”
UM POLEMISTA DE ÉPOCA: “Ora, como pode conseguir isto se ignorar quantas espécies de governo existem? Nossos atuais políticos, por exemplo, só conhecem uma espécie de democracia e de oligarquia; trata-se, como vimos, de um erro, pois existem várias.”
VIM PARA CONFUNDIR, NÃO PARA ESCLARECER: “Dir-se-á, talvez, que cabe à lei dominar e que não se pode agir de pior maneira do que substituindo-a pela vontade de um homem, sujeito como os demais a suas paixões. Mas, se a própria lei for ditada pelo espírito de oligarquia ou de democracia, de que nos servirá para elucidar a questão proposta?”
“há uma enorme afinidade entre a monarquia e a aristocracia, elas têm quase a mesma disciplina e os mesmos costumes e seus chefes não precisam de educação diferente da que forma o homem virtuoso.” “A monarquia é, na nossa opinião, um dos melhores regimes.” Vozes da cabeça de Ari.. De todo modo, ser “um dos melhores” quando existem 4 ou 5 tipos de governo não é lá grande coisa, concordam?!
SÓ FIZ MARIAS, DIGO, SOFISMARIAS: “Querer que o espírito comande equivale a querer que o comando pertença a Deus e às leis. Entregá-lo ao homem é associá-lo ao animal irracional. Com efeito, a paixão transforma todos os homens em irracionais. (…) A lei, pelo contrário, é o espírito desembaraçado de qualquer paixão.”
“A amizade supõe igualdade e semelhança.” Não leu o Lísis.
“Se antigamente se deixaram governar por reis, é, sem dúvida, porque raramente se encontravam ao mesmo tempo várias pessoas eminentes quanto ao mérito, sobretudo nas pequenas cidades, como eram as dos velhos tempos.”
ISSO É UM DADO HISTÓRICO OU UMA ASSUNÇÃO METAFÍSICA? “Mas, quando os homens de mérito começaram a se multiplicar, não se quis mais aquele governo; procurou-se algo mais conveniente ao interesse comum e se formou uma República.”
“Se supusermos, porém, que em geral a monarquia convém mais aos grandes Estados, que partido tomar com relação aos filhos dos reis? Deve ser hereditário o cetro? Ficaremos expostos a cair nas mãos de maus sucessores, como aconteceu algumas vezes. Dir-se-á que o pai terá o poder de não lhe passar a coroa. Mas não devemos esperar por isto: esta renúncia está muito acima da virtude que a natureza humana comporta.”
“alguém aconselhou aos siracusanos que regulassem da mesma forma a importância da guarda que lhes pedia Dionísio.” Quem você quer nomear quando não nomeia?
“Mas já falei bastante da monarquia” Sim, já falaste bastante de muitas coisas e mal cheguei à metade da obra…
DANCE CONFORME A MÚSICA: “como a harmonia é dividida por alguns em dois modos, o dórico e o frígio, aos quais relacionam todos os demais e dão nome a todas as suas composições musicais, de ordinário se formam, a exemplo desses dois modos, todas as Repúblicas. Mas é melhor só admitir como bem-constituídas uma ou no máximo duas espécies. As outras são como que desvios ou da boa harmonia, ou do bom governo”
“A igualdade parece ser a base do direito, e o é efetivamente, mas unicamente para os iguais e não para todos. A desigualdade também o é, mas apenas para os desiguais. Ora uns e outros põem de lado esta restrição e se iludem, já que é sobre eles próprios que sentenciam; pois de maneira bastante ordinária os homens são maus juízes a seu próprio respeito. A igualdade da qual resulta a justiça ocorre, como igualmente o demonstra a nossa Ética, nas pessoas e nas coisas. Concorda-se facilmente sobre a igualdade das coisas.”
“Os Estados democráticos ostentam acima de tudo a igualdade. Foi este zelo que fez com que imaginassem o ostracismo. Nenhuma ascendência é tolerada, nem por riqueza, nem por credibilidade, nem por poder, e desde que um homem alcance tal preponderância é banido por um tempo determinado pela lei. A mitologia ensina-nos que foi este o motivo pelo qual os argonautas devolveram Hércules à terra e o abandonaram. Não queria remar com os outros no Argos, acreditando-se muito acima dos marinheiros.”
“O ostracismo tem por objeto apenas deter e afastar os que se distinguem demais. Os soberanos agem da mesma forma para com Estados ou nações inteiras. Foi assim que agiram os atenienses para com os de Samos, de Quios e de Lesbos. Tão logo puderam, os rebaixaram, contra a fé dos tratados. Da mesma forma, o rei da Pérsia humilhou e saqueou os medos, os babilônios e outros insolentes que não se cuidaram durante a prosperidade.”
NADA MAIS ERRADO: “o público julga melhor do que ninguém sobre música ou poesia. Uns criticam um trecho, os demais um outro, e todos captam o forte e o fraco do conjunto da obra.”
AH, ZEITGEIST! “Entendemos por médico tanto aquele que pratica a medicina como artista [acepção de formado profissionalmente] como aquele que ordena e aquele que adquiriu conhecimentos na arte tais como se encontram em todos os demais [autodidata]. Estes últimos não são menos competentes para julgar do que os doutores.”
* * *
IGUALDADE E IGUALDADE
“Ora, um dos apanágios da liberdade é que todos alternadamente mandem e obedeçam. Desta diferença entre perpetuidade e alternância dependem a disciplina e a instituição. Se houvesse uma raça de homens que superasse tanto os outros quanto imaginamos que os deuses e os heróis o fazem; se essa superioridade se manifestasse primeiramente pelo porte e pela boa aparência, depois pelas qualidades da alma, e fosse indubitável para os inferiores, o melhor sem contestação seria que seu governo fosse perpétuo e que as pessoas se submetessem a ele de uma vez por todas. Mas como, com exceção, segundo Scyllax, dos indianos, de ordinário os reis não apresentam superioridade tão acentuada sobre seus súditos, é preciso que todos os cidadãos mandem e obedeçam alternadamente, e isto por várias razões.”
“Aos descontentes se soma a gente do campo, sempre ávida de novidades, e qualquer que seja o número dos altos funcionários não pode ser grande o bastante para que eles sejam os mais fortes.”
“Ninguém se zanga ou se sente desonrado por ceder aos mais velhos, na esperança de alcançar as mesmas honras quando tiver a idade conveniente. Pode-se, portanto, dizer que os mesmos mandam e obedecem, mas são, porém, diferentes; assim, a disciplina deve ser em parte a mesma e em parte diferente. Pois, de acordo com o provérbio, para bem comandar é preciso ter antes obedecido.”
“várias funções que à primeira vista pareceriam servis podem ser executadas honestamente por homens livres. A honestidade e a torpeza residem menos na natureza do ato do que no motivo que faz agir.”
“um homem não deve se submeter a ninguém, ou que isto só deve acontecer se houver desforra, conseqüência necessária da liberdade distribuída a todos em igual medida.” Memes de internet são desforra?
PRINCÍPIOS DEMOCRÁTICO-ARISTOTÉLICOS:
(*)“os magistrados devem ser sorteados, ou todos sem exceção, ou pelo menos aqueles cujo cargo não requer nem luzes, nem experiência”
(*)“não se deve ter (…) nenhuma consideração para com a fortuna”
(*)“a mesma magistratura não deve ser conferida mais de uma vez à mesma pessoa, ou pelo menos que isto aconteça raramente e para pouquíssimos cargos, a não ser os militares”
(*)“todos os cargos devem ser de curta duração, ou pelo menos aqueles onde esta breve duração for conveniente”
(*)“todos devem passar pela judicatura, de qualquer classe que sejam, e ter poder para julgar sobre todos os casos em qualquer matéria, mesmo as causas da mais alta importância para o Estado, tais como as contas e a censura, a reforma do governo, assim como as convenções particulares”
(*)Judiciário fraco, legislativo e executivo sumamente poderosos (limite da abordagem pré-Montesquieu).
(*)“os membros do senado não devem ser indistintamente assalariados. Os salários arruínam o poder da magistratura; o povo, ávido de salários, atrai tudo para si”
(*)“Não se deve tolerar nenhuma magistratura perpétua. Portanto, se sobrar alguma magistratura do antigo regime, suas atribuições serão reduzidas e, de eletiva, passará a depender de sorteio. Eis o espírito de todas as democracias.”
“Sem contestação, o melhor povo é o que se ocupa de agricultura. Existe, pois, disposição natural para a democracia em todos os lugares em que o povo tira sua subsistência da agricultura ou da criação de gado.” “Consideram mais agradável trabalhar do que permanecer sentadas, de braços cruzados, a deliberar sobre o governo ou gerir magistraturas, a menos que haja muito que ganhar neste trabalho, pois a maioria prefere o lucro à honra. A prova de sua despreocupação quando não se desperta sua cupidez é que suportaram muito bem seus antigos déspotas e ainda hoje se acostumam com a oligarquia quando os deixam trabalhar e não tiram seus pertences. Então, eles logo alcançam a riqueza, ou pelo menos a abastança. Se tiverem além disso alguma ambição, ela é mais do que satisfeita pelo direito de voto que lhes dão nas eleições e na auditoria das contas. E mesmo que nem todos tivessem direito de assistir a elas, mas apenas o de ser voz deliberativa nas Assembléias primárias. Com efeito, é preciso considerar isto como uma das formas do governo democrático. Era esta que havia em Mantinéia.”
“Esta Constituição deixará contentes os homens de bem e os nobres. Por um lado, terão a vantagem de não serem governados por pessoas baixas; por outro lado, quando chegar a sua vez, tomarão mais cuidado para governar eqüitativamente, pois terão contas a prestar e outras pessoas que os julgarão, pois é bom depender de alguém e não ter toda a liberdade para fazer o que se quer. Esta liberdade indefinida é uma má garantia contra o fundo de maldade que todo homem traz consigo ao nascer. Resulta necessariamente desta precaução a maior vantagem para todo Estado, que é ser governado por pessoas de bem que a responsabilidade torna por assim dizer impecáveis, e isto sem ameaçar a superioridade do povo. É evidente que a melhor de todas as democracias é a que é assim constituída. Por quê? Porque nela o povo tem sua importância.”
“Dentre as excelentes leis que existiam antigamente entre vários povos, observamos sobretudo as que não permitiam a ninguém possuir terras ou acima de certa quantidade, ou a uma distância grande demais da cidade onde se mora. Em vários Estados era proibido alienar a herança paterna. Uma lei de Oxilus, cujo efeito é aproximadamente o mesmo, proibia que se hipotecasse parte dela aos credores. Podemos retificá-la por um texto dos afitianos que vem bem a propósito. Esse povo, embora numeroso, possuía um território bastante pequeno; todos eram lavradores, mas nos registros do censo não constava a totalidade de suas propriedades. Dividiam-nas em certo número de partes disponíveis, para que os pobres pudessem adquiri-las em quantidade suficiente para ultrapassar até mesmo os ricos.
Depois dos agricultores, o melhor povo é o que leva a vida pastoril e explora o gado. Tem muitas afinidades com o primeiro. Ambos, habituados ao trabalho corporal, são excelentes para as expedições militares e resistem perfeitamente aos incômodos do bivaque [acampamento e vigília militar].
Quase todos os outros povos que compõem o restante das democracias estão muito abaixo destes dois. Nada de mais vil, nem de mais alheio a todo tipo de virtude do que esta multidão de operários, de mercenários e de gente sem profissão. Esta espécie de indivíduos corre sem parar pela cidade e pelas praças públicas e só fica contente nas Assembléias.”
“Vemos como deve ser constituída a primeira e a melhor democracia, e também como podem sê-lo as outras. Basta que nos afastemos gradualmente da primeira e adicionemos aos poucos a populaça, à medida que a democracia for piorando.”
A XENOFOBIA DE VERDADE NASCE QUANDO A XENOFOBIA PASSA A SER COISA DO PASSADO: “Para constituí-la [a última democracia] e firmar o poder do povo, os governantes costumam receber o máximo possível de pessoas e conceder direito de cidadania não apenas aos que têm um nascimento legítimo mas até aos bastardos e aos mestiços de qualquer dos dois lados, paterno ou materno.” “preciso introduzir a atenuante de só admitir recém-chegados na medida em que forem necessários para intimidar os nobres e a classe média, sem jamais ultrapassar este limite. Se isso acontecer, a desordem não tardará a reinar por toda parte. Os nobres, que já têm muita dificuldade para suportar este governo, se irritarão cada vez mais. Esta foi a causa do levante de Cirene. Fecham-se os olhos diante de um pequeno inconveniente, mas quando ele assume certa dimensão, não podemos deixar de vê-lo.”
“Deve-se dividir o povo em tribos e cúrias, dissolver os cultos particulares e reconduzi-los à unidade do culto público; numa palavra, imaginar todos os meios possíveis para unir todos os cidadãos e extinguir todas as corporações anteriores; nem mesmo desdenhar certas invenções que, embora de origem tirânica, não deixam de ser populares, como o desregramento dos escravos, que pode ser útil até certo ponto, a emancipação das mulheres e das crianças, a conivência sobre o gênero de vida que agrada a cada um: nada tem melhores efeitos para essa democracia. A dissolução agrada a muito mais gente do que uma conduta regrada.”
* * *
NA PLUTOCRACIA
Na melhor oligarquia: “A divisão pelo censo deve ser tal que aqueles que têm a renda exigida sejam mais numerosos e mais fortes dos que os que não são admissíveis. Mas também é preciso ter sempre a intenção de que aqueles que são associados ao governo venham somente da parte sadia do povo.”
“É o número e a abundância de homens que salvam as democracias; sua consistência vem de uma razão diametralmente oposta ao mérito. A oligarquia, pelo contrário, só pode conservar-se pela melhor ordem de suas partes.
Assim como a multidão se compõe principalmente de quatro classes, a saber: 1a os agricultores, 2a os ligados às artes e ofícios, 3a os comerciantes, 4a os trabalhadores manuais,¹ assim também existem quatro tipos de guerreiros, a saber: 1° a cavalaria, 2° os hoplitas ou infantaria armada dos pés à cabeça, 3° a infantaria ligeira, 4° a marinha.”
¹ Curioso como hoje em dia mal se pode distinguir uma da outra!
“Os lugares mais propícios à primeira espécie de oligarquias são os chamados bippasimos, isto é, próprios, por suas campinas, à criação de cavalos. Esses lugares são propícios à oligarquia mais poderosa. Seus habitantes são protegidos e conservados pela cavalaria. Ora,
só a classe opulenta pode ter haras.
Quando o lugar só oferece homens e armas, a segunda oligarquia convém-lhe mais. A armadura completa necessária à grande infantaria só pode ser fornecida pelos ricos e ultrapassa os recursos dos pobres.
É a arraia-miúda que compõe a infantaria ligeira e os marinheiros. Em toda parte onde abunda essa turba há perigo de democracia para os ricos. Se acontece alguma divisão, os combates de ordinário terminam desfavoravelmente para eles. Para sanar este inconveniente, é preciso contar com hábeis generais que misturem à cavalaria e à infantaria pesada um número suficiente dessa tropa ligeira; assim apoiada, ela combate com maior desenvoltura. Porém, criar uma força dessa espécie, vinda do seio do povo, é armar-se contra si mesmo e trabalhar para sua própria destruição. Nas sedições, o povo vence os ricos através da infantaria ligeira. Ágil e alerta, ela facilmente domina a cavalaria e a infantaria pesada. Portanto, distinguindo as idades, é preciso encarregar os velhos de fazer com que seus filhos pratiquem os exercícios ligeiros e, ao sair da juventude, tomem os melhores destes alunos para colocá-los à frente dos outros.
Quanto ao restante do povo será admitido, como já se disse, no controle dos negócios públicos, quando atingir a taxa do censo exigido, ou, como entre os tebanos, depois que se tiver abstido das profissões mecânicas durante o número prescrito de anos, ou, como em Marselha, quando, tendo passado pela censura, tiver sido considerado digno do título de cidadãos e das funções cívicas.
Devem-se impor às grandes dignidades pesados encargos, para que o povo renuncie a eles de boa vontade e os deixe aos ricos, como se assim lhe pagassem os juros. Com efeito, os ricos, ao assumir o exercício, oferecerão pomposos sacrifícios, mandarão construir salas de banquetes ou outros edifícios destinados ao público, para que o povo, convidado a estes banquetes e encantado com a magnificência dos edifícios e outras decorações, veja com prazer o governo perpetuar-se.”
“Não é isso o que hoje fazem os grandes de nossas oligarquias. Procuram nas dignidades, pelo contrário, não menos o lucro do que a honra. Dir-se-ia que são menos oligarquias do que democracias em transformação.”
* * *
E VIVA O GOVERNO MISTO…
“Os que se chamam aristocráticos estabeleceram-se em muitos países por imitação de governos estrangeiros, e se aproximam tanto da República propriamente dita que de agora em diante falaremos destas duas formas como sendo uma só.”
…E VIVA A MEDIOCRIDADE: “O que dissemos de melhor em nossa Ética é que a vida feliz consiste no livre exercício da virtude, e a virtude na mediania; segue-se necessariamente daí que a melhor vida deve ser a vida média, encerrada nos limites de uma abastança que todos possam conseguir.”
UM LOUVOR (ANTIGO!) AO ÚLTIMO HOMEM, ‘INDA TÃO DISTANTE NO ESPECTRO DA (NOSSA) HISTÓRIA: “Em todos os lugares, encontram-se 3 tipos de homens: alguns muito ricos, outros muito pobres, e outros ainda que ocupam uma situação média entre esses dois extremos. É uma verdade reconhecida [por quem, cara pálida e exangue?] que a mediania é boa em tudo.”
“Os da primeira classe, favorecidos demais pela natureza ou pela fortuna, poderosos, ricos e rodeados de amigos ou de protegidos, não querem nem sabem obedecer. Desde a infância, são tomados por essa arrogância doméstica e a tal ponto corrompidos pelo luxo que desdenham na escola até mesmo escutar o professor. Os da outra classe, abatidos pela miséria e pelas preocupações, curvam-se diante dos outros de modo que esses últimos, incapazes de comandar, só sabem obedecer servilmente. Os primeiros, pelo contrário, não obedecem a nenhuma ordem, mas mandam despoticamente.” Também é uma verdade, paradoxal que seja, que os melhores filósofos emanam justamente da CLASSE MÉDIA.
“Por isso Focílides dizia que uma modesta abastança era o objeto de seus desejos, só pedindo ao céu ser ele próprio medíocre em sua pátria.”
“a tirania surge de igual modo da insolente e desenfreada democracia e da oligarquia”
NOMENCLATURAS MONTESQUIEUANAS: Quando os pobres não têm este contrapeso, e começam a prevalecer pelo número, tudo vai mal e a democracia não tarda a cair no aniquilamento.”
“Um poderoso argumento a favor da mediocridade é que os melhores legisladores foram cidadãos de média fortuna. Sólon declara-se tal em suas poesias, Licurgo tornou-se tal quando parou de reinar e Carondas também o era, como quase todos os outros.”
“jamais ou raramente aconteceu, e entre muito poucos povos, que se tenha optado por uma República média. Entre os príncipes não há um só exemplo desta moderação, em toda a antiguidade; em todas as outras partes, virou costume recusar a igualdade e procurar dominar quando se sai vencedor, ou ceder e obedecer quando se é vencido.”
“o árbitro mais conveniente é aquele que, colocado entre dois, não pende mais para um lado do que para o outro” Infelizmente a classe média brasileira pende mais para o tio do pavê e o véio da Havan…
“O censo não pode determinar-se pura e simplesmente. É preciso, porém, que o seja com a máxima amplitude possível, para que os participantes sejam mais numerosos do que os não-participantes. Quanto aos pobres, eles se consolam por não participarem e ficam descansados se não os ultrajam e lhes deixam os poucos bens que possuem, o que nem sempre acontece, pois os indivíduos de condição que pretendem os cargos públicos às vezes não são nem corteses, nem humanos. Resulta daí que, se houver guerra, os pobres a evitam, a menos que os sustentem. Mas se os sustentarem, passam a desejá-la.
Em alguns lugares, o governo é formado não apenas por aqueles que portam armas, mas pelos que as portavam. Os malianos escolhiam seu Conselho dentre estes, e seus magistrados dentre os guerreiros em atividade. O primeiro Estado entre os gregos foi organizado com esta espécie de cidadãos, depois da extinção das monarquias; e em primeiro lugar com cavaleiros, pois a força e a superioridade dos exércitos consistiam então na cavalaria. Pois as outras tropas de nada servem se não tiverem disciplina, e antigamente não havia nem disciplina, nem experiência na infantaria, de sorte que a cavalaria sozinha constituía toda a força do Estado.
Mas como os Estados cresceram e ganharam consideração através das outras armas, o governo foi comunicado a um maior número de pessoas. Assim, o que hoje chamamos de República era então chamado de democracia.¹”
¹ Resta saber a quando remonta esse “então” de Aristóteles: poderia estar falando já do tempo de Sócrates, não tão pretérito ao seu? Tem-se aí que Aristóteles já divisava o que a ciência política moderna divisa entre os gregos: sua democracia era com certeza uma oligarquia ou aristocracia, conforme fosse saudável ou decadente (ainda sem contar a chusma de escravos da polis).
* * *
STOP THE REVOLUTION!
“Para terminar, é normal examinar de onde vêm as revoluções dos Estados, quantas causas podem provocá-las e quais são elas, a que depravações cada governo em particular está sujeito e quais são os meios de preservação, os remédios gerais e específicos para essas perturbações.”
“A excelência do mérito é a única superioridade absoluta, e os homens que se sobressaem quanto ao mérito são os que menos provocam revoltas.”
INCÊNDIO NA BABILÔNIA DEMORA A ESPALHAR: “Do fato de as pessoas habitarem o mesmo lugar não se segue que se trata de uma única e mesma Cidade. Os muros não podem servir de critério, pois todo o Peloponeso poderia ser cercado por uma mesma muralha. Não seria a primeira vez que vastos espaços seriam assim fechados. Assim são todas as grandes cidades, que se parecem menos com cidades do que com uma nação inteira, como a Babilônia. Três dias já se haviam passado, dizem, desde que fôra tomada e em vários bairros ainda de nada se sabia.”
“São também questões de política saber se convém que um Estado só contenha uma nação ou várias, se continua a ser o mesmo enquanto conserva o mesmo gênero de habitantes, apesar da morte de uns e do nascimento de outros, como os rios e as fontes, cuja água corre sem cessar para dar lugar à água que sucede.”
“permanecendo os mesmos atores, o coro não deixa de mudar quando passa do cômico ao trágico.” “Permanecendo as mesmas vozes e os mesmos instrumentos, o canto não é mais o mesmo quando passa do modo dórico ao modo frígio. Isto posto, é a forma e não a matéria que decide se um Estado permanece o mesmo e se se deve, apesar da identidade de habitantes, chamá-lo de outro nome ou conservar-lhe o nome, embora seus habitantes tenham mudado.”
PRINCÍPIO DA DISTRIBUIÇÃO DE RENDA PAULATINA (COMO NA SOLTURA DE ESCRAVOS): “Os crescimentos desmedidos de uma classe relativamente às outras também são causas de revolução. Assim, os membros que compõem um corpo devem crescer proporcionalmente, para que subsista a mesma comensura. O animal morreria se o pé, por exemplo, crescesse até 4 côvados, não tendo o resto do corpo mais do que 2 palmos”
MEGA-SENA DA VIRADA: “As modificações ocorrem com as democracias, mas são mais raras. Por exemplo, quando a quantidade de pobres aumenta e vários deles se tornam ricos, ou então quando os bens dos ricos aumentam de valor, passa-se à oligarquia, e até à oligarquia concentrada que chamamos politirania.
Às vezes, sem que haja sedição, o governo muda em razão de seu aviltamento, como em Heréia, onde começaram a se envergonhar das eleições e os magistrados foram depois sorteados, por causa da torpeza dos eleitos.”
“Algumas vezes a mudança se realiza através de progressos imperceptíveis; no final, fica-se admirado vendo os costumes e as leis mudadas sem que se tenha atentado para as causas ligeiras e silenciosas que preparam as mudanças. Na Ambrácia, por exemplo, depois de ter escolhido magistrados de pequena fortuna, passou-se a admitir pouco a pouco alguns que não possuíam nada. Ora, há pouca ou nenhuma diferença entre nada e muito pouco.”
“Todos os que admitiram estrangeiros para residir em sua cidade, foram quase sempre enganados por eles, como os de Trezena, que, em Síbaris, receberam os aqueus. Foram obrigados a ceder-lhes o lugar quando o número deles aumentou, o que causou a desgraça. Os sibaritas retiraram-se para Túrio e ali fizeram a mesma tentativa, mas, querendo dispor do território como senhores, foram vencidos e expulsos. Os bizantinos sofreram algo semelhante da parte de estrangeiros e tiveram subitamente que recorrer às armas para repeli-los. Os antisianos, que de modo semelhante haviam aceitado os banidos de Quios, também se viram obrigados a livrar-se deles pela força. Os zanclianos foram vencidos e expulsos pelos de Samos, que os tinham recebido. Também foram estrangeiros que perturbaram os apoloniatas do Ponto Euxino. Os siracusanos, após a expulsão de seus tiranos, tendo tornado cidadãos alguns soldados e mercenários estrangeiros, tiveram tantos aborrecimentos por causa disso que foi preciso romper com eles. Os de Anfípolis foram quase todos expulsos pelos de Cálcis, por tê-los recebido em sua cidade.”
“Às vezes a sedição parece derivar da própria natureza do lugar que foi mal-escolhido para habitação. Em Clazômenas, os habitantes do Centro (ou bairro dos banhos) detestam os da ilha; em Cólofon, a parte do norte odeia a do sul; em Atenas, o pireu é mais democrático do que a cidade. Pois, assim como num exército, um riacho, mesmo bem pequeno, pode romper a falange, assim também, numa cidade, qualquer diferença de habitação basta para quebrar, o entendimento e o acordo entre os habitantes.”
“Antigamente, em Siracusa, o Estado foi perturbado por dois jovens magistrados rivais em amor. Durante a ausência de um, o outro conquistou sua amada. O despeito, quando ele voltou, sugeriu-lhe atrair e seduzir a mulher de seu rival. Tendo cada um deles conseguido o apoio de outros magistrados, a discórdia espalhou-se por toda a cidade. Portanto, nunca é cedo demais para abafar as brigas dos altos funcionários e dos grandes. O mal está na origem. Em tudo, o que começou já está feito pela metade. O menor erro cometido no início repercute em tudo que se segue.”
“O noivo, por lhe terem predito que a união lhe traria desgraça, hesitou em tomar sua noiva e a deixou sem nada concluir. Os pais da moça, considerando-se insultados, acusaram falsamente o jovem de ter roubado durante a celebração de um sacrifício o dinheiro do tesouro sagrado e o fizeram morrer como sacrílego.”
“todos os que, quer na condição privada, quer na magistratura, quer em família, quer em tribo ou qualquer outra associação que possa haver, proporcionaram ao Estado algum acréscimo de potência, sempre ocasionaram certa perturbação, quer começada por invejosos, quer por terem eles próprios, envaidecidos com o sucesso, desdenhado permanecer nos limites da igualdade.”
“se uma das duas facções se torna muito superior, a porção média não quer arriscar-se contra quem tem uma superioridade evidente.”
“em Atenas os Quatrocentos lograram o povo com a falsa esperança de que o rei da Pérsia ajudaria com seu dinheiro os atenienses a fazerem guerra contra os espartanos, e assim se apossaram do governo.”
“o temor diante do perigo comum tem o efeito de reconciliar os maiores inimigos.”
“Em Rodes, distribuíram aos soldados todo o dinheiro proveniente dos impostos e impediram que os capitães das galeras recebessem o que lhes era devido, acusando-os de vários delitos. Para evitar, então, a punição, os acusados foram obrigados a conspirar contra a democracia e a derrubaram.”
“Antigamente, quando o mesmo personagem era demagogo e general de exército, as democracias não deixavam de se transformar em Estados despóticos. Com toda certeza, os antigos tiranos originaram-se dos demagogos. Isso já não acontece com tanta freqüência quanto antigamente, pois então, não estando ainda exercitados comumente na arte de bem falar, as armas eram o único meio de se obter poder. Hoje que a eloqüência foi levada ao mais alto grau de perfeição e goza da maior estima, são os oradores que governam o povo. (…) Assim, as usurpações da suprema autoridade eram mais freqüentes no passado do que no presente, porque se davam a alguns cidadãos magistraturas de alta importância, como em Mileto a Pritania, e se submetiam à decisão deles os maiores interesses. Aliás, as cidades estavam longe de ser tão grandes, já que o povo preferia morar no campo, ocupando-se com seus trabalhos rústicos. Portanto, se esses magistrados eram guerreiros, apossavam-se do governo. Seu principal recurso era a confiança que obtinham do povo, pelo ódio que demonstravam contra os ricos. Foi assim que Pisístrato obteve a tirania de Atenas; querelando contra os habitantes da planície; Teagênio, a de Mégara, mandando matar o gado dos proprietários, quando o encontrou passando à margem do rio; e Dionísio, a de Siracusa, acusando de traição Dafne e os grandes, artifícios que eram tidos como ímpetos de patriotismo e davam popularidade.”
“quando a oligarquia está de acordo consigo mesma, não é fácil destruí-la. Temos um exemplo disto no Estado de Farsala, onde poucos homens mantêm grande número deles na obediência, porque estão em harmonia e se conduzem bem entre si.”
“Em tempo de guerra, os magistrados, desconfiando do povo, são obrigados a chamar tropas estrangeiras e não raro aquele a quem confiam o comando se torna seu tirano, como Timófanes em Corinto. Se tal comando é confiado a vários, estes se coalizam numa dinastia, ou então, temerosos de serem pegos no mesmo truque, fazem com que o povo participe do governo, para reconciliarem-se com ele. Em tempo de paz, os oligarcas, desconfiados uns dos outros, entregam a guarda do Estado a seus soldados, sob o comando de algum general neutro, o qual às vezes acaba por se tornar senhor dos dois partidos, como aconteceu em Larissa sob o comando dos Alevadas (Aleuadas) de Samos e em Ábido, no tempo das facções, das quais uma era a de Ifíade.” “Várias oligarquias, como as de Cnido e de Quios, também foram destruídas por serem despóticas demais, e isso por senadores irritados com a insolência dos outros.”
“A tirania reúne os vícios da democracia aos da oligarquia. Ela tem em comum com a segunda o fato de propor-se a opulência como fim (sem isso ela não teria condições de manter a guarda e a magnificência), de desconfiar do povo, de desarmá-lo, de oprimi-lo, de expulsá-lo das cidades e dispersá-lo pelos campos ou colônias. Da democracia, ela toma a guerra aos nobres, sua destruição aberta ou clandestina, seu banimento, considerando-os como rivais ou como inimigos de seu governo. De fato, é de ordinário desta classe que procedem as conspirações, querendo alguns deles dominar eles próprios, e outros temendo ser escravos. Assim, vimos Periandro aconselhar Trasíbulo a cortar as espigas mais altas, isto é, desfazer-se dos cidadãos mais eminentes.
“Os ofendidos conspiram, na maioria dos casos, para se vingarem, e não em seu próprio proveito. Assim foi a conjuração contra os filhos de Pisístrato; ela teve por causa a injúria feita à irmã de Harmódio e a ofensa que ele próprio sentira na ocasião. Harmódio armou-se para vingar a irmã, Aristogíton para vingar Harmódio. Periandro, tirano de Ambrácia, permitiu que conjurassem contra ele por ter perguntado num banquete a uma de suas amantes se estava grávida de um filho seu. Pausânias matou o rei Filipe porque este desdenhava vingá-lo do ultraje que Átalo lhe fizera. Derdas conspirou contra Amintas, que se vangloriava de ter colhido a flor de sua juventude. Evágoras de Chipre foi morto por Eunucus, cuja esposa fôra raptada pelo filho daquele príncipe.” “Xerxes, bêbado de vinho, encarregara Artábano de crucificar Dario. Artábano, crendo que o príncipe se esqueceria dessa ordem por ter sido dada no auge da embriaguez, não a executou. Quando Xerxes deu mostras de sua cólera por isso, Artábano o matou para evitar sua própria perda.”
“O desprezo torna infiéis até mesmo os protegidos. A confiança com que são honrados persuade-os de que poderão de repente tentar um golpe seguro. O pouco caso que têm pelo monarca também torna audaciosos os que ganharam poder e acreditam poder tornar-se senhores do Estado. (…) foi o que fez Ciro contra Astiago, cujos costumes eram desprezíveis e a incapacidade evidente, já que vivia na moleza e seu exército estava irritado com a ociosidade.”
“A magnanimidade somada ao poder transforma-se em ousadia.”
“Os que conspiram para conseguir um nome são de uma espécie completamente diferente. Não atacam os tiranos pelas honras e pelas riquezas, mas sim para conquistar a glória e fazer com que falem deles. O desejo de um grande nome e da memória da posteridade faz com que arrisquem grandes façanhas, mas pessoas deste tipo são raras. É preciso estar, como Díon, O Bravo, disposto ao sacrifício da própria vida e a perder tudo, se falhar o golpe. A natureza não engendra facilmente almas tão heróicas.”
“Os Estados opostos, por exemplo uma democracia vizinha a uma tirania, são tão inimigos quanto os oleiros o são dos oleiros, no dizer de Hesíodo, pois a pior espécie de democracia é ela própria uma tirania. O mesmo ocorre com a monarquia e a aristocracia. Por isso os espartanos e os siracusanos, enquanto foram bem-governados, destruíram várias tiranias.
Algumas vezes a tirania morre por si mesma, quando ocorre uma divisão entre os pretendentes, como outrora a de Gelão e em nossos dias a de Dionísio.”
“quase todos os usurpadores conservaram a soberania durante a vida, apesar do ódio público, mas quase todos os seus sucessores perderam-na incontinente. A vida dissoluta que levam faz com que caiam no desprezo e dá mil ocasiões de os exterminar.”
CÓLERA COM “CO” DE “CORAÇÃO PURO”: “A cólera está ligada ao ódio e produz quase os mesmos efeitos, mas é ainda mais enérgica. Os que são animados por ela insurgem-se com mais violência, não podendo, na perturbação da paixão, ouvir os conselhos da razão.” “Ao passo que a cólera é acompanhada de uma dor que não permite raciocinar, a animosidade isenta desse ardor calcula e age silenciosamente.”
“vemos hoje muito poucos Estados governados por reis. [!] Se existem ainda alguns, são de preferência monarquias absolutas e tiranias. A realeza é uma dignidade estabelecida voluntariamente, cujo poder se estende às maiores coisas. Ora, como a maioria dos homens se assemelha e raramente se encontra alguém tão perfeito para corresponder à grandeza e à dignidade do cargo, as pessoas não se submetem de bom grado a semelhantes instituições. Se alguém quiser reinar por astúcia ou por violência, não haverá monarquia, mas sim tirania.”
“Historicamente, a monarquia tirânica é, juntamente com a oligarquia, a forma de Estado menos duradoura. A mais longa tirania foi a de Ortógoras e de seus descendentes, em Sícion. Durou cem anos. (…) 73 anos e 6 meses reinou a dinastia: Cipselo reinou 30 anos, Periandro, 40, e Psamético, filho de Górdias, 3.” “A terceira [tirania mais longa] foi a dos Pisistrátidas, em Atenas. Mesmo assim, a tirania de Pisístrato se viu duas vezes interrompida por sua expulsão, de modo que, de 33 anos, só reinou de fato por 17 e seus filhos mais 18, o que perfaz no total 35.”
“Só se sente o mal quando está consumado. Como ele não acontece de uma vez, seus progressos escapam ao entendimento e se parecem àquele sofisma que do fato de cada parte ser pequena inferir-se que o todo seja também pequeno.”
“Assim, aqueles que velam pela sua segurança devem inventar de tempos em tempos alguns perigos e tornar mais próximos os perigos que estão distantes, a fim de que os cidadãos informados estejam sempre alertas, como sentinelas noturnas.”
MUITA HORA NESTA CALMA: “Não valorizar demais quem quer que seja e não distribuir nenhuma honra excessiva, mesmo que breve. Se se acumulam muitos cargos em uma só pessoa, tais cargos devem ser-lhe retirados aos poucos, e não todos de uma vez. Será sobretudo conveniente estabelecer através das leis que ninguém possa adquirir poder, crédito ou riqueza demais, ou que sejam afastados os que tiverem demais.”
“O vulgo zanga-se menos por estar excluído do governo do que por ver os magistrados viverem às custas do tesouro público. É até muito cômodo dispor de todo o tempo para cuidar dos negócios particulares. Mas se estiver persuadido de que os titulares dos cargos públicos pilham o Estado, terá a dupla vexação de estar afastado tanto dos cargos públicos quanto dos lucros pecuniários.”
ENTÃO ME PROCESSA! “Aqueles que se preocupam com a segurança do Estado devem, em vez de se apoderar em proveito do povo dos bens dos condenados, consagrá-los à religião. A pena será a mesma e deterá igualmente os crimes, mas o povo terá menos pressa para condenar, pois não tirará nenhum proveito da sentença. Além disso, os legisladores devem fazer com que as acusações públicas se tornem muito raras, estabelecendo penas pesadas contra os que agirem levianamente, pois não são as pessoas do povo, mas sim as dos meios refinados que assim se costumam atacar e humilhar.”
“Se houver rendas suficientes, não se deve, como fazem os demagogos, distribuir à arraia-miúda o dinheiro que sobrar. Mal o recebem e já voltam a cair na indigência, pois essas pessoas são tonéis furados a que essa liberalidade não traz nenhum proveito.”
“O melhor emprego das rendas públicas, quando a sua percepção está terminada, é auxiliar amplamente os pobres, para colocá-los em condições ou de comprar um pedaço de terra ou os instrumentos para a lavoura, ou de abrir um pequeno comércio. Se não for possível ajudá-los a todos, deve-se pelo menos verter os subsídios na caixa de alguma tribo ou cúria ou de alguma porção do Estado, ora uma, ora outra. Far-se-á com que os ricos contribuam para as despesas das Assembléias necessárias, de preferência a esbanjamentos frívolos e meramente aparatosos. Por meio disso, o governo cartaginês tornou-se popular, empregando sempre alguém do povo nas administrações provinciais, para que aí fizessem fortuna.”
“para eleger um general de exército, deve-se considerar mais a experiência militar do que a virtude, pois há menos generais experientes do que homens virtuosos. O caso é totalmente contrário no que diz respeito à administração das finanças, pois aí é preciso mais probidade do que tem o comum dos homens.”
A FEIÚRA DO ESTADO: “Um nariz que se afasta da linha reta, que tende para o aquilino ou é arrebitado, ainda pode agradar; mas se se alongar ou se encurtar demais, primeiro sairá da justa medida e, por fim, cairá tanto no excesso ou na falta que não será mais um nariz. O mesmo ocorre com as outras partes do corpo, e também com os regimes. A oligarquia e a democracia podem subsistir, embora se afastando de seu desígnio e de sua perfeição. Mas se dermos demasiada extensão ao seu princípio, primeiro tornaremos pior o governo, e, no final, chegaremos a tal ponto que ele nem será mais digno deste nome.”
SEJA UM MILIONÁRIO APUD CF88 (SÓ PODIA DAR MERDA): “O mais importante meio para a conservação dos Estados, mas também o mais negligenciado, é fazer combinarem a educação dos cidadãos e a Constituição. Com efeito, de que servem as melhores leis e os mais estimáveis decretos se não se acostumar os súditos a viverem segundo a forma de seu governo? Assim, se a Constituição for popular, é preciso que sejam educados popularmente; se for oligárquica, oligarquicamente; pois se houver desregramento em um só súdito, este desregramento estará então em todo o Estado.”
MANUAL DO TIRANO PRUDENTE (QUASE UMA ANTINOMIA): “Deve-se manter espiões por toda parte, saber tudo o que se faz e tudo o que se diz, destacar agentes e espiões, como fazia Hierão em Siracusa, colocando-os em toda parte onde havia uma reunião ou um conciliábulo. Não se é tão ousado quando se tem algo a temer de tais vigilantes e, quando se é, fica-se sabendo.” “Empobrecer os cidadãos, a fim de que não possam formar uma guarda armada e, absorvidos nos trabalhos de que precisam para viver, não tenham tempo de conspirar. Como exemplo dessas manobras, temos as pirâmides do Egito, os templos dedicados aos deuses pelos Cipsélidas, o de Zeus Olímpico pelos filhos de Pisístrato, as fortificações de Samos por Polícrates, que são todas coisas que tendem aos mesmos fins de ocupação e empobrecimento. Aumentar o peso dos impostos, como em Siracusa no tempo de Dionísio onde, em 5 anos, foram obrigados a dar em contribuições tudo o que valia a terra.” “Fazer uso dos recursos da extrema democracia, como a atribuição do governo doméstico às mulheres, para que elas revelem os segredos de seus maridos, e o afrouxamento da escravidão, para que também os escravos denunciem seus senhores.”
SÍNDROME DE ESTOU-CALMO: “Os escravos e as mulheres nada tramam contra os tiranos e até, se tiverem a felicidade de ser bem-tratados por eles, afeiçoam-se necessariamente à tirania, ou à democracia, pois o povo também pode ser um tirano.”
“Um prego expulsa outro” “os tiranos declaram guerra a todo homem de bem que tiver coragem. Esta categoria de pessoas é perniciosa a seu regime, por não quererem deixar-se tratar servilmente, serem francos com todos, sobretudo entre eles, e não denunciarem ninguém.”Vale para instituições na “democracia”. Beware where you step, fella.
“Sendo senhor do Estado, não deve temer a falta de dinheiro. Mais vale para ele estar sem dinheiro para suas campanhas do que deixar em casa tesouros empilhados; com isto, ficarão menos tentados de abusar desse dinheiro os que, em sua ausência, governarem o Estado, pessoas muito mais temíveis para ele do que os meros cidadãos. Estes marcham com ele para o combate, enquanto que aqueles ficam na retaguarda.”
“Que o tirano tenha também uma abordagem fácil e um ar grave, de modo que os que tiverem acesso a ele pareçam menos temê-lo do que respeitá-lo, o que homens desprezíveis não conseguem facilmente. Se não se preocupar com nenhuma outra virtude, que pelo menos seja cortês, tenha a política de passar por virtuoso, e se abstenha não apenas ele mesmo de toda injúria contra seus súditos, de qualquer sexo que for, mas também não tolere que nenhum de seus domésticos ofenda ninguém, e cuide de que suas mulheres se comportem da mesma maneira para com as outras mulheres. Pois há injúrias feitas por mulheres de tiranos que arruínam a tirania.”
“Sobre a questão dos prazeres sensuais, que faça o contrário de seus êmulos de hoje, que não se contentam em se entregar a eles da manhã à noite, durante vários dias, mas ainda querem que todos saibam a vida que levam, para serem admirados como seres felizes. Que use moderadamente deste tipo de prazeres; que pelo menos tenha a aparência de não correr atrás deles, e até de procurar furtar-se a eles. Não se surpreende com facilidade e não se despreza um homem sóbrio, mas sim um homem bêbado, nem um homem vigilante, mas sim um homem sonolento.” “Que demonstre principalmente muito zelo pela religião. Teme-se menos injustiça da parte de um príncipe que se crê seja religioso e parece temer aos deuses, e se está menos tentado a conspirar contra ele quando se presume que tem a assistência e o favor do Céu. Mas é preciso que sua piedade não seja afetada, nem supersticiosa.” “Que deixe para si mesmo a distribuição das honras e entregue a seus oficiais e aos juízes as punições.” “A própria punição das faltas deve evitar o ultraje. Só se deve fazer uso dele com uma espécie de jeito paternal.”
* * *
CONSTITUIÇÕES REAIS E IDEAIS, DEVANEIOS DE UM DISCÍPULO!
“Em sua República, Platão propõe que as mulheres, as crianças e os bens sejam comuns aos cidadãos. De fato, neste diálogo, Sócrates preconiza a comunidade total.”
“A comunidade de mulheres oferece grandes dificuldades, e se fosse preciso estabelecê-la não seria pela razão apresentada por Sócrates. O próprio fim suposto por ele para a associação política torna impossível este estabelecimento, e assim ele nada diz de preciso sobre este assunto.” Desapega!
ARISTÓTELES NÃO COMPREENDEU SEU PRÓPRIO MESTRE: “É, portanto, claro que a unidade, como alguns a apresentam, não pertence à essência de um Estado, e o que chamam de seu maior bem é a sua ruína.”
“no serviço doméstico, quanto mais empregados houver, menos o trabalho é bem-feito.”
“Haveria alguma dúvida em preferir a mera qualidade de primo em nosso costume à de filho no de Sócrates?” Sim.
ANÁLISE MAIS PERFUNCTÓRIA DO MAIOR LIVRO DA IDADE ANTIGA AINDA NÃO NASCEU: “Outro absurdo da comunidade de crianças é só se ter proibido o comércio amoroso dos dois sexos, e não o amor e suas intimidades de pai para filho, de irmão para irmão, que são o cúmulo da indecência e da torpeza [com referência em que absoluto? Que declaração mais platônica!]. Ora, não é estranho proibir as relações entre os dois sexos, em razão dos perigos da volúpia excessiva, e ser indiferente sobre essas familiaridades entre pai e filho, irmão e irmão?”
“O encanto da propriedade é inexprimível. Não é em vão que cada um ama a si mesmo; tal amor é inato; só é repreensível o excesso chamado amor-próprio, que consiste em se amar mais do que convém. Tampouco é proibido amar o dinheiro, nem outra coisa da mesma natureza: todos o fazem.”
LONGO E INÚTIL IMBRÓGLIO, NO QUAL ROUSSEAU JÁ APARECERIA DANDO VOADORA PARA DEFENDER PLATÃO: “também contribui o preconceito existente de que os vícios que grassam em certos regimes procedem da propriedade, como esses eternos processos que sempre renascem entre os cidadãos por ocasião dos contratos, a corrupção de testemunhas e a adulação a que as pessoas se rebaixam diante dos ricos. Mas não é da propriedade dos bens que derivam esses males, mas da improbidade dos homens.” Engraçado como contradiz os capítulos precedentes da própria Política!
SERÁ QUE SE FAZ DE IMBECIL? “basta submeter a uma tentativa a comunidade socrática e se terá a prova de que ela é impraticável.” Dêem o Übermensch ao Último Homem e ele apenas será morto, dizimado, castrado ou ignorado…
“De resto, Sócrates não explica e não deixa entrever facilmente qual será a forma de governo entre seus comunistas.” Haha. Bom, qual seria a graça se a República tivesse 80 tomos e não precisássemos pensar em nada?! Para começo de conversa, nem saberíamos quem foi Aristóteles…
“Platão ou, se quiserem, Sócrates, que ele faz falar, tampouco trata de uma maneira satisfatória das revoluções ou das transformações de Estado.” Hm, verdade?
“É da ordem da natureza que nada seja eterno e tudo mude após certo período de tempo. A mudança ocorre quando o número elementar epiternário, combinado com o número quinário, dá dois acordes e é elevado ao cubo.”
Comete o erro torpe e juvenil de misturar seu sistema completamente arbitrário de formas de governo com um outro, que aliás não entendeu (pois se entendesse, não teria criado o seu): “E por que essa República passaria a ter a forma espartana, se a maior parte das outras se transforma no Estado contrário e não no que se lhes aproxima? Deve haver a mesma razão em toda mudança. Segundo ele, a forma espartana se transformará em oligarquia; a oligarquia, em democracia; a democracia, em tirania, embora também se transformem no sentido contrário, a saber, a democracia em oligarquia, mais até do que em monarquia. Além disso, não fala da tirania e não diz se sofre ou não mutação, nem por que causa, nem em que espécie de República. Deixa este ponto indeterminado, como algo em que a exatidão não seja fácil.¹ Segundo ele, a mudança deveria retornar à primeira e melhor espécie, de tal forma que haveria um circuito contínuo; mas a tirania algumas vezes dá lugar a outra tirania, como em Sícion a de Míron sucedeu à de Clístenes; ou a uma oligarquia, como em Cálcis, a de Antileo; ou uma democracia, como em Siracusa, a de Gelão; ou à aristocracia, como a de Carilau na Lacedemônia, e também em Cartago.²”
¹ Na verdade não precisou falar da tirania pela razão oposta: porque é muito fácil; todo homem sabe o que é e no que consiste a tirania.
² Parabéns, discípulo, fez o dever de casa: mas és filósofo ou historiador? É que estou com a memória ruim hoje…
“As leis, que Platão escreveu depois, são aproximadamente do mesmo gênero que A República.” Mas com muito mais homofobia, não é mesmo? Afinal, por que, já tão velho, se dar ao trabalho de escrever tanto?
FIGHT RANÇO WITH RANÇO (A ARTE DAS CAROLINAS): “Todas as palavras que neste livro atribui a Sócrates são cheias de superfluidades pomposas e de novidades problemáticas, cuja apologia talvez fosse difícil fazer.”
“O mesmo autor contenta-se com dizer que, assim como a cadeia difere da trama pela lã, deve haver algum atributo que distinga os que mandam e os que obedecem, mas não explicita quais são estas marcas distintivas.” Ele queria que você adivinhasse.
NÃO ERGAS PONTES QUE NÃO TENS O TALENTO DE ERGUER! “Sua forma de governo não é nem uma democracia, nem uma oligarquia, mas um regime médio que ele chama propriamente de ‘republicano’, composto inteiramente de militares. Se propôs esta forma por ser a mais geralmente consagrada em todas as sociedades civis, talvez tenha razão; se foi como a melhor depois da primeira d’A República, ele está enganado. Sem contestação, preferir-se-á o Estado de Esparta ou algum outro mais aristocrático.” Até hoje não se sabe muito bem a relação entre as Leis e a República, falo isso por experiência própria. Na dúvida quanto ao que falar, melhor calar a boca. E olha que eu meti o pau em metade dos livros das Leis nas minhas traduções!
Obrigado pela explicação, mas eu não pedi – e, ademais, achei que você disse a mesma coisa ali em cima, com suas próprias palavras (“o rico deve ser punido pela apatia política, o pobre incentivado”, é mais ou menos a sinopse de tudo), e sem nenhum indício de ironia (há poucos parágrafos, Ari. tinha criticado Sócrates-Platão por NÃO haver estipulado classes na República, mas agora o critica por segregar nitidamente sua polis, nas Leis!): “Na verdade, todos são convocados para as eleições, mas são obrigados a escolher primeiro entre a primeira classe de ricos, depois na segunda e depois na terceira; os da terceira e da quarta classes, porém, não são forçados a dar seu voto, e só é permitido aos da primeira e da segunda eleger entre os da quarta; é preciso apenas que cada classe forneça o mesmo número de eleitos. Portanto, a maioria e os principais sairão do grupo dos mais ricos, não se envolvendo o povo na eleição porque a lei não o força a isso.”
* * *
“Faléias de Calcedônia põe os artesãos no grupo dos escravos públicos, sem lhes dar nenhum lugar entre os cidadãos. Quanto aos que se empregam nos trabalhos públicos, vá lá. Mas, mesmo assim, isso deve ser feito como se estabeleceu em Epidamno, ou como Diofante determinou antigamente em Atenas.”
“Hipódamo de Mileto não deseja que os julgamentos se façam por meio de bolas; pretende que cada um traga uma tabuleta onde inscreva seu assentimento, se simplesmente condenar, ou então indique que condena sobre o principal e absolve quanto ao resto. Condena a forma empregada em nossos tribunais, pela qual, diz ele, os juízes não-raro são forçados a julgar contra a consciência e contra o juramento que prestaram.”
“A medicina, por exemplo, a ginástica e todas as artes e talentos ganharam ao reformar suas velhas máximas. Ocupando, pois, a política um lugar entre as ciências, parece que também ela pode admitir o mesmo princípio. De fato, os antigos Estados mudaram muito de feição. O que há de mais ingênuo e de mais grosseiro do que suas leis e costumes primitivos, mesmo as dos gregos, que antigamente andavam cobertos de ferro? O que existe de mais pobre e de mais imbecil do que sua jurisprudência, como em Cumas, onde, para condenar à morte um homem acusado de homicídio, bastava que o acusador apresentasse várias testemunhas tomadas de sua própria família?”
ISSO É SÉRIO, ARI.? “É muito provável que os primeiros homens, tanto os que saíram do seio da terra quanto os que escaparam da calamidade geral da espécie humana [tebanos ou egípcios, em suma], eram tão rudes quanto o vulgo de hoje, como são representados os antigos gigantes; seria uma extravagância limitarmo-nos a seus decretos.” Haha
AGORA, PRESTA UM TÁCITO TRIBUTO À REPÚBLICA DE PLATÃO PELA SUA INTENSA PREOCUPAÇÃO DE “UNISSEXUALIZAR” A POLIS… E DEPOIS ENVOLVE-SE NUMA BARAFUNDA SEM SIM, DEPRECIANDO ESPARTA SEM FUNDAMENTO (E SENDO O AVESSO DO “PLATÃO FINAL” OUTRA VEZ, AO SER HOMÓFILO: “Como o homem e a mulher fazem parte de cada família, é de se esperar que o Estado esteja dividido em dois, metade homens, metade mulheres; donde se segue que todo Estado em que as mulheres não têm leis está na anarquia pela metade. É o que acontece em Esparta. Licurgo, que pretendia enrijecer seu povo com todos os trabalhos penosos, só pensou nos homens e não prestou nenhuma atenção nas mulheres. Elas se entregam a todos os excessos da intemperança e da dissolução; assim, em tal Estado é necessário que as riquezas sejam honradas, principalmente quando as mulheres dominarem, como acontece na maioria das nações guerreiras, com exceção dos celtas e dos povos em que o amor pelos rapazes está publicamente em uso. [PROGRAMA PEDERASTIA PARA TODOS?]Não é sem razão que a fábula associa Marte a Vênus, pois todos os povos guerreiros são dados tanto ao amor dos jovens quanto ao amor das mulheres. [E ESPARTA NÃO? NÃO ENTENDO ISSO.] Este mal manifestou-se ainda mais em Esparta, onde, desde a origem, as mulheres se envolveram em tudo.[COMO, SE LICURGO AS OLVIDOU?]Pois o que importa que as mulheres mandem ou que os que mandam sejam comandados pelas mulheres? É a mesma coisa.”
“o legislador permaneceu longe do alvo a que se propunha; fez apenas um Estado pobre e particulares avarentos.”
Um homem do tempo de Aristóteles já não pode julgar a Esparta de Licurgo no seu momento presente, ainda mais levando-se em conta a assimilação da Grécia pela Macadônia!
Logo após falar mal dos éforos:“quer os éforos tenham sido instituídos por Licurgo desde sua primeira legislação, quer sejam de criação mais recente, não foram inúteis à prosperidade da nação.” [!!] Quem é capaz de entender Aristóteles, que sequer segue seu princípio da não-contradição quando se trata de Política?!
“As virtudes guerreiras, a que se relaciona toda a Constituição de Licurgo, não são senão uma parte da virtude integral, e são boas apenas para dominar os outros homens. Assim, os espartanos conservaram-se bastante bem enquanto guerreavam, mas quando submeteram a seu domínio todos os seus vizinhos começaram a decair, não sabendo o que fazer de seu ócio, não tendo aprendido nada melhor do que os exercícios militares.”
“A ilha de Creta parece ter sido disposta pela natureza para comandar a Grécia, cujos povos, em sua quase totalidade, habitam as costas do mar: por um lado, ela está situada a pouca distância do Peloponeso; por outro lado, ela toca na Ásia, confinando com Triópia e Rodes. Foi graças a esta posição que Minos se tornou senhor do mar, reduziu quase todas as outras ilhas à obediência ou as povoou com suas colônias. Pensava também em se apoderar da Sicília, quando morreu perto de Camico.”
“Os que são chamados de éforos na Lacedemônia chamam-se cosmos em Creta, com a única diferença de que são somente 5 na Lacedemônia e 10 em Creta.” Só isso? Bom, na essência eram ministros que atuavam como contrapeso do rei, i.e., poder moderador institucionalizado (não-encarnado num ou dois monarcas).
“Em Esparta, o povo que escolhe os éforos tem também a faculdade de escolhê-los dentre aqueles que bem quiser e, por conseguinte, de sua própria classe, assim como de todas as outras, o que faz com que tenha interesse em conservar o Estado. Em Creta, pelo contrário, os cosmos provêm não de todas as classes, mas sim de certas famílias. Dos que foram cosmos, tiram-se os senadores, dos quais se pode dizer tudo o que se disse dos de Esparta. A dispensa da prestação de contas e a perpetuidade são prerrogativas muito acima de seu mérito.” “Cassam-se os cosmos sem processo e, de ordinário, pela insurreição de outros cosmos ou de particulares amotinados. A única graça que lhes concedem é deixar-lhes, antes da expulsão, a faculdade de se demitir.”
“O regime de Cartago, em geral, é sabiamente ordenado. A pedra de toque de uma boa Constituição é a perseverança voluntária e livre do povo na ordem estabelecida, sem que jamais tenha ocorrido nem alguma sedição notável de sua parte nem opressão da parte dos que a governam.”
“A República de Cartago tem em comum com a de Esparta:¹ 1° o que nesta se chama Fidítias, ou refeições públicas entre pessoas da mesma classe; 2° seu Centunvirato, que corresponde ao colégio dos éforos, com a diferença de ser composto de 140 membros e de ser mais bem-recrutado, isto é, não-escolhido ao acaso e dentre o vulgo, mas sim dentre o que há de mais eminente em matéria de mérito²”
¹ Não disse no começo da obra que Esparta era uma monarquia? O próprio Montesquieu é dessa opinião!
² Mas Aristóteles cita como um mérito dos cargos de éforos espartanos serem abertos à arraia-miúda, quando não o são entre os cartagineses!
ARISTÓTELES NÃO SABE O QUE DIZ OU TODO O TEMPO SE CONTRADIZ! “A maior parte dos pontos que criticamos por se afastarem dos princípios de toda boa Constituição são comuns às três Repúblicas. No entanto, embora todas elas tenham um jeito de aristocracia ou de República, inclinam-se um pouco mais para a democracia, sob certos aspectos, e, sob outros, para a oligarquia.”
“De resto, embora a República de Cartago se incline bastante para a oligarquia, ela escapa com bastante agilidade dos seus inconvenientes, através das colônias de pobres que envia para que façam fortuna nas cidades de sua dependência. Este recurso prolonga a duração do Estado, mas é confiar demais no acaso; devem-se abolir pela própria Constituição todas as causas de sedição. Se acontecer alguma calamidade e a massa se revoltar contra a autoridade não haverá leis que possam deter sua audácia, nem remediar a desordem.”
“Dentre aqueles que escreveram sobre o governo civil, alguns sempre levaram uma vida privada sem participar em nada dos negócios públicos; passamo-los quase todos em revista, ao menos os que deixaram escritos dignos de atenção; os outros foram legisladores quer em sua própria pátria, quer em outro lugar. Dentre estes, alguns foram simplesmente autores de leis, outros, autores de Constituição, como Licurgo e Sólon. Falamos bastante do primeiro quando tratamos da República espartana. Alguns contam o segundo entre os bons legisladores, por ter destruído a oligarquia imoderada demais dos atenienses, libertado o povo da servidão e estabelecido uma democracia bem-temperada pela mistura das outras formas, aproximadamente tal como era antigamente. O Conselho, ou Senado do Areópago, é de fato oligárquico; a eleição dos magistrados, aristocrática e a administração da justiça, muito popular. O Areópago existia antes dele, assim como o modo de eleição dos magistrados. Ele parece só ter tido o mérito de sua conservação. No entanto, foi com certeza ele quem reergueu o povo, ao determinar que os juízes fossem tirados de todas as classes. Assim, censuram-no por ter ele próprio arruinado um ou outro, ou mesmo os dois outros poderes de sua Constituição, entregando ao sorteio, quanto ao terceiro, a nomeação dos juízes, e pondo todos sob a autoridade deles. Mal esta inovação foi recebida e já fez nascer a raça dos demagogos, que, adulando o povo, como se adulam os tiranos, reduziram o Estado à democracia atual.” Bem-lhe-quer mal-lhe-quer
“Sem dúvida, era necessário entregar ao povo, como fez Sólon, a nomeação e a censura dos magistrados, sem o que ele seria escravo e, conseqüentemente, inimigo do Estado. Mas Sólon quis ao mesmo tempo que os magistrados fossem escolhidos dentre os nobres e os ricos: aqueles que possuíssem 500 medinos [?] de renda, os que podiam alimentar um par de bois, ou zeugitas, e enfim os cavaleiros, que formavam a terceira classe. A quarta classe, composta de trabalhadores manuais, não tinha acesso a nenhuma magistratura.” ?!
“Alguns tentam fazer crer que Onomacrito de Lócris tenha sido o primeiro a saber fazer leis e que, tendo passado de sua pátria a Creta, ali pôs à prova este talento, embora não tivesse vindo senão para trabalhar como adivinho; dizem também que teve por companheiro Tales, cujos discípulos foram Licurgo e Zaleuco, que, por sua vez, teve Carondas como aluno. Há, porém, muitos anacronismos nessa história.
Filolau, natural de Corinto, da raça dos Baquíadas, também deu leis aos tebanos. Apaixonou-se por Díocles, vencedor nos jogos olímpicos, que, detestando o amor incestuoso de Alcíone, sua mãe, [?] deixou sua cidade e o seguiu até Tebas, onde ambos morreram. Ainda hoje se mostram seus túmulos, um em frente ao outro, mas colocados de tal forma que apenas de um deles se pode ver o istmo de Corinto. Dizem que isto foi assim arranjado por eles próprios, sobretudo por Díocles, em memória de sua desgraça, para subtrair seu sepulcro dos olhares de Corinto, pela interposição do mausoléu de Filolau.” Intercala análises de engenharia constitucional e da biografia dos grandes legisladores com casos comezinhos e romances, tsc…
“Platão, a comunidade das mulheres, das crianças e dos bens, além dos banquetes públicos femininos; também é conhecida a sua lei contra a embriaguez, a lei em favor da sobriedade dos presidentes de banquetes e a que diz respeito aos exercícios militares e ao uso das duas mãos, pois ele não podia tolerar que se servissem de uma e a outra permanecesse inútil. Existem também algumas leis de Drácon, que ele acrescentou, por assim dizer, à Constituição existente; distinguem-se pela extrema severidade das penas.”
“Pítaco é também mais autor de leis do que fundador de República. Cita-se uma lei sua contra os bêbados, que diz que as brigas entre eles, em estado de embriaguez, serão punidas mais severamente do que se não tivessem bebido.”
* * * PRIMEIRA LEITURA DA REPÚBLICA (CONTEÚDO IMPORTADO – COM EDIÇÕES – DO ANTIGO BLOG DO AUTOR, PRÉ-Seclusão Anagógica) * * *
[PREFÁCIO DA EDIÇÃO – COMENTADOR] Foi, como é fato conhecido, o preceptor de Alexandre, O Grande, mas não por muito tempo: “Romperá com seu real discípulo depois do assassínio de Calístenes” No entanto eis a comprovação de sua imaturidade prática, até maior que a de Platão, que tanto criticou: “Jamais se envolveu com política prática.”
Meu limite: é que o pai que temos determina o raio de nossa genialidade. O meu, infelizmente, é bem curto. Zeus não respeitou seu pai, por que esperaria receber o respeito dos filhos sem o emprego da violência? O fosso etário entre pais e filhos. Profilática: que o filho seja gerado no inverno! Adoro meus “rasgos de cólera”, “Dia de fúria”. Estranhamente encarnado numa fazenda abelhuda…
Muitas de suas obras se perderam. Algumas são atribuídas a si, mas provavelmente provêm de discípulos.
Estudou 158 Constituições de Estados – na época a Grécia estava em dissolução, e a República Romana em ascensão. Havia “zilhões” de pequenos Estados (cidades-Estados) – a geografia política do mundo era bem diferente do que é hoje. Contribuiu com as bases do Direito Moderno, mas foi muito ultrapassado por Montesquieu & al.
ECONOMIA (*) ≠ CREMATÍSTICA
(Modesta e nobre X Supérflua, grotesca e vil)
(*) despida em absoluto do “D” marxista (ciclos D-M)
P. 24: o médico vendido. O professor vendido.
“a bondade intrínseca do Estado”
“a mulher passaria por atrevida se não fosse mais reservada do que um homem em suas palavras.”
“São as primeiras impressões as que mais nos afetam”
“a beleza e a estatura não pertencem à maioria.” Ora, veja só, às vezes me acho um não-maldito!
“Democracia” não é o governo da maioria, etimologicamente, mas dos pobres.
Uma hora fala em Deus, noutra fala em Zeus.
“Pelo fim do serviço militar obrigatório! Vote 25050.” Minha plataforma.
“Os homens facilmente se corrompem pela prosperidade, pois nem todos são capazes de suportá-la”
161: bem atual – sobre os parlamentares e seus vencimentos: A idéia aristotélica de se não auferir SALÁRIO ao político profissional. Assim, será uma função por VOCAÇÃO, e não COBIÇA. Só os mais ricos, que já são ricos, estariam aptos, mas eles teriam menos chances de legislar em causa própria; e os pobres não se sentiriam ultrajados como hoje se vê com os sucessivos “auto-aumentos” que se concedem os deputados.
Já cobrava TRANSPARÊNCIA das autoridades em relação às receitas e gastos, mesmo sem um site na internet para publicá-lo.
“No caso de algum rico ultrajar [aos mendigos], será punido mais severamente do que se tivesse insultado um igual.”
Da liberdade e da igualdade na Democracia: “sofisma miserável.”
170: “Que deixe para si mesmo a distribuição das honras e entregue a seus oficiais a aos juízes as punições.” Maquiavélico, literalmente. Não seria o caso, aliás, de Maquiavel ser um aristotélico?
178: Aristóteles X Platão-Marx no tocante à propriedade privada.
Recomenda-se também, como medida anti-viciosa, um teto para rendimentos por indivíduo ou família, sem falar na dignidade do pão (banquetes públicos) aos indigentes.
“Não se deve exigir que um mesmo homem seja flautista e sapateiro.”
Platão: famoso precursor do feminismo [P.S.: quem diria…]
“In the first part alone the opposing factions in the English court choose the white and red roses which mark their division, Henry’s armies in France are troubled by losses, but Lord Talbot is leading devastating forays againt the French. Joan of Arc enters, leads the French to victories, and is burnt. By the end of Part One there is peace with France, and Henry, swayed by the ambitious Earl of Suffolk, is about to marry Margaret of Anjou.
That leaves, for Parts Two and Three, Henry’s growth into maturity, Margaret’s transformation from strumpet queen into warrior, Richard Plantagenet’s struggle for the crown, Jack Cade’s peasant rebellion in Kent, and the various battles, betrayals and alliances which place Edward IV on the throne, remove him, return Henry and once again replace him with Edward, meanwhile preparing the way for Richard III’s rise.
There is little of Shakespeare’s great poetry in the plays. (…) Heads are chopped off almost at will, making voices of reason dumb and yet making Henry appear as a solitary sane man as he turns from power to God. In these plays, howeber, the subtleties of conscience are expressed directly in action, with few of the speeches commenting so eloquently on life as the stage representation of war, aspiration, peace and love.”
“Rarely have so many elements of theatre, down to the columns of light and the commentary of Guy Woolfenden’s music, come together with such effect.”
Jane Ellison – Evening Standard, 24/4/1978
“Adorers of Alan Howard – I admit at the start I am one – still have 3 Saturdays on which to see one of his famous marathons, when the company performs Parts I, II and III at a single sitting.”
“The death of Henry V whose reign is invoked as a Golden Age throughout the trilogy, destroyed the necessary equilibrium between the divine might and right of kingship. It is his son, Henry VI, who can most keenly lament the contrast between bold Harry and St. Henry.”
“Images of violence burn in the mind long after the plays are over. Like Joan La pucelle (Charlotte Comwell) leading the French troops forward through cannon-smoke, clasping a burning torch.”
Jack Tinker – Daily Mail, 17/04/1978
“This is pure Shakespeare – entirely faithful to the author’s intent.”
“What is amazing, in view of Shakespeare’s later prudent partisan re-arrangement of history for his Royal patrons, is his youthful sense of fairness here. He goes to endless pains to establish the Yorkists’ legal claim to the throne, giving Emrys James wonderful scope for spite, hatred and outraged indignation as the Duke.”
B.A. Young – Daily Telegraph
“there would be little profit in presenting any of the 3 parts without the ability to see the other 2: and ideally it should be possible to see Richard III afterwards.” “To my mind this is the best Shakespeare production I have ever seen.”
“Twice Shakespeare predicts – in 1591! – that the French will have Joan d’Arc made a saint.”
“Mr. Peter McEnery is our best Shakespearean actor since Richard Burton, no question about it.” Wiki on Burton: “Richard Burton, born Richard Walter Jenkins Jr.; 10 November 1925 – 5 August 1984) was a Welsh actor. Noted for his mellifluous baritone voice, Burton established himself as a formidable Shakespearean actor in the 1950s, and he gave a memorable performance of Hamlet in 1964. He was called <the natural successor to Olivier> by critic and dramaturgeKenneth Tynan. (…) Burton remained closely associated in the public consciousness with his second wife, actress Elizabeth Taylor.” Eles fizeram par em Cleópatra.
Diana Harker – Manchester Guardian
“When the Royal Shakespeare Company presented the Henry VI trilogy at the Theatre Royal, Newcastle, on Saturday, the ovation after 9 hours (with necessary breaks for food and watering) was not only for the tour de force by the company but also a self-congratulatory pat on the back for the stamina of the audience.
Henry VI, 1, 2, and 3 are rarely, if ever performed, simply because they are not very good plays. John Barton extracted the best and most salient parts for his Wars of the Roses, but only the genius of Terry Hands could envisage embarking upon the daunting prospect of the complete uncut version.
Knowing that the artistic merit of the plays has limitations – the French scenes in Part 1 are supposed not to have been written by Shakespeare, and there are the unsatisfactory use of rhyming verse in Parts 1 and 2, the diversity in characterisations, the uneven structures of too many battle scenes and the overall complexity of the plots – Mr. Hands has quite rightly simplified the staging: using follow spots and a curtain of light to isolate his areas, and a specially built raked stage, which tips the actors forward.”
“Alan Howard, who was impressive as Henry V, now plays the son, Henry VI; weak, saintly, easily swayed by his elders and who finally retreats inside himself to escape the polemics of his court and queen.”
J.C. Trewin – Shakespeare Quarterly, Spring 1978
“Henry VI at Birmingham Repertory in 1953 was the last of the 37 plays I met in performance: it had taken nearly 30 years.”
“Anton Lesser is an extremely promising actor, but I felt that his Richard was over-mouthed, even in a production where all worked in bold primary colours.”
“Howard’s Henry means more to me than David Warner’s did during the mid-60s”
“The play, it seemed, drifted away – though no doubt I was thinking wistfully of the famous Seale production of 1951, at curtain-fall, the opening lines of the first soliloquy of Richard III were beaten into silence by the clanging bells. Nevermind. Mr. Hands had achieved the production of the year, matched only by his Coriolanus”
“Biographies of gay men and lesbian women discuss their orientation only when unavoidable, as with Oscar Wilde. There have been several encyclopedias and dictionaries of sexuality (beginning with a German one of 1922, the Handbuch der Sexualwissenschaft), but this work is the first to treat homosexuality in all its complexity and variety.”
“all the efforts of church and state over the centuries to obliterate homosexual behavior and its expression in literature, tradition, and subculture have come to naught, if only because the capacity for homoerotic response and homosexual activity is embedded in human nature, and cannot be eradicated by any amount of suffering inflicted upon hapless individuals.”
“The editors are persuaded that the phenomenology of lesbianism and that of male homosexuality have much in common, especially when viewed in the cultural and social context, where massive homophobia has provided a shared setting, if not necessarily an equal duress.”
“Perhaps the most difficult obstacle to a simple focus on <homosexuality> is the growing realization that what has been lumped together under that term since its coinage in 1869 is not a simple, unitary phenomenon. The more one works with data from times and cultures other than contemporary middle-class American and northern European ones, the more one tends to see a multiplicity of homosexualities.”
“The Greeks who institutionalized pederasty and used it for educational ends take a prominent role, as does the Judeo-Christian tradition of sexual restriction and homophobia that prevailed under the church Fathers, Scholasticism, and the Reformers, and – in altered form – during the 20th century under Hitler and Mussolini, Stalin and Castro.”
ACHILLES
“He is a tragic hero, being aware of the shortness of his life, and his devoted friendship for Patroclus is one of the major themes of the epic. Later Greek speculation made the two lovers, and also gave Achilles a passion for Troilus. The homoerotic elements in the figure of Achilles are characteristically Hellenic. He is supremely beautiful, kalos as the later vase inscriptions have it; he is ever youthful as well as short-lived, yet he foresees and mourns his own death as he anticipates the grief that it will bring to others. His attachment to Patroclus is an archetypal male bond that occurs elsewhere in Greek culture: Damon and Pythias, Orestes and Pylades, Harmodius and Aristogiton are pairs of comrades who gladly face danger and death for and beside each other. From the Semitic world stem Gilgamesh and Enkidu, as well as David and Jonathan. The friendship of Achilles and Patroclus is mentioned explicitly only once in the Iliad, and then in a context of military excellence; it is the comradeship of warriors who fight always in each other’s ken: <From then on the son of Thetis urged that never in the moil of Ares [nas confusões da guerra] should Patroclus be stationed apart from his own man-slaughtering spear.>”
“The friendship with Patroclus blossomed into overt homosexual love in the fifth and fourth centuries, in the works of Aeschylus, Plato, and Aeschines, and as such seems to have inspired the enigmatic verses in Lycophron’s third-century Alexandra that make unrequited love Achilles’ motive for killing Troilus. By the IV century of our era this story had been elaborated into a sadomasochistic version in which Achilles causes the death of his beloved by crushing him in a lover’s embrace. As a rule, the post-classical tradition shows Achilles as heterosexual and having an exemplary asexual friendship with Patroclus. The figure of Achilles remained polyvalent. The classical Greek pederastic tradition only sporadically assimilated him, new variations appeared in pagan writings after the Golden Age of Hellenic civilization, and medieval Christian writers deliberately suppressed the homoerotic nuances of the figure.”
W. M. Clarke, Achilles and Patroclus in Love (1978)
AESCHINES
“Athenian orator. His exchanges with Demosthenes in the courts in 343 and 330 reflect the relations between Athens and Macedon in the era of Alexander the Great. Aeschines and Demosthenes were both members of the Athenian boule (assembly) in the year 347-46, and their disagreements led to 16 years of bitter enmity. Demosthenes opposed Aeschines and the efforts to reach an accord with Philip of Macedon, while Aeschines supported the negotiations and wanted to extend them into a peace that would provide for joint action against aggressors and make it possible to do without Macedonian help. In 346-45 Demosthenes began a prosecution of Aeschines for his part in the peace negotiations – Aeschines replied with a charge that Timarchus, Demosthenes’ ally, had prostituted himself with other males and thereby incurred atimia,<civic dishonor>, which disqualified him from addressing the assembly. Aeschines’ stratagem was successful, and Timarchus was defeated and disenfranchised. The oration is often discussed because of the texts of the Athenian laws that it cites, as well as such accusations that Timarchus had gone down to Piraeus, ostensibly to learn the barber’s trade.”
AESCHYLUS
QUEM DISSE, JAEGER, QUE NÃO SE PODE SER SOLDADO E POETA AO MESMO TEMPO? “First of the great Attic tragedians. Aeschylus fought against the Persians at Marathon and probably Salamis. Profoundly religious and patriotic, he produced, according to one catalogue, 72 titles, but 10 others are mentioned elsewhere. He was the one who first added a second actor to speak against the chorus. Of his 7 surviving tragedies, none is pederastic. His lost Myrmidons, however, described in lascivious terms the physical love of Achilles for Patroclus’ thighs, altering the age relationship given in Homer’s Iliad – where Patroclus is a few years the older, but as they grew up together, they were essentially agemates – to suggest that Achilles was the lover (erastes)of Patroclus.
Plato had Phaedrus point out the confusion, and argue that Patroclus must have been the older and therefore the lover, while the beautiful Achilles was his beloved (Symposium, 180a). Among Attic tragedians Aeschylus was followed by Sophocles, Euripides, and Agathon.
Sophocles (496-406 B.C.), who first bested Aeschylus in 468 and added a third actor, wrote 123 tragedies of which 7 survive, all from later than 440.At least 4 of his tragedies were pederastic. Euripides (480-406 B.C.) wrote 75 tragedies of which 19 survive, and the lost Chrysippus,and probably some others as well, were pederastic. Euripides loved the beautiful but effeminate tragedian Agathon until Agathon was 40. The latter, who won his first victory in 416, was the first to reduce the chorus to a mere interlude, but none of his works survive.
All four of the greatest tragedians wrote pederastic plays but none survive, possibly because of Christian homophobia. The tragedians seem to have shared the pederastic enthusiasm of the lyric poets and of Pindar, though many of their mythical and historical source-themes antedated the formal institutionalization of paiderasteiain Greece toward the beginning of the sixth century before our era.”
(o artigo de William Percyfoi transcrito na íntegra)
AFRICA, NORTH
“Pederasty was virtually pandemic in North Africa during the periods of Arab and Turkish rule. Islam as a whole was tolerant of pederasty, and in North Africa particularly so. (The Islamic high-water points in this respect may tentatively be marked out as Baghdad of The Thousand and One Nights, Cairo of the Mamluks, Moorish Granada, and Algiers of the 16th and 17th centuries.) The era of Arabic rule in North Africa did, however, witness occasional puritan movements and rulers, such as the Almohads and a Shiite puritanism centered in Fez (Morocco). This puritanism continues with the current King Hassan II of Morocco, who is, however, hampered by an openly homosexual brother.”
“400 Franciscan friars left the Spain of Isabel the Catholic and embraced Islam rather than <mend their ways>, as she had commanded them to do.”
“Universal throughout pre-colonial North Africa was the singing and dancing boy, widely preferred over the female in café entertainments and suburban pleasure gardens. A prime cultural rationale was to protect the chastity of the females, who would instantly assume the status of a prostitute in presenting such a performance. The result was several centuries of erotic performances by boys, who were the preferred entertainers even when female prostitutes were available, and who did not limit their acts to arousing the lust of the patrons. A North African merchant could stop at the café for a cup of tea and a hookah[narguilé], provided by a young lad, listen to the singing, and then proceed to have sex with the boy right on the premises, before returning to his shop.”
“The present writer has spoken with a Tunisian supervisor of schools who firmly believes in the death penalty for all homosexuals. Thus, in their rush to modernism, Third World leaders often adopt the sexual standards of medieval Christendom, even as Europe and America are moving toward legalization and tolerance of same-sex activity. Such, at least in part, is also the plight of modern North Africa.”
“Tunisia. A small and impoverished country of some 4 million, Tunisia’s high birthrate keeps the country very young – about half the people are under 18. Although it is common to see men walking hand-in-hand (as in all Islamic countries), it would not be wise for a foreigner to adopt the practice with a male lover. Tunisians can easily tell the difference between two friends of approximately equal status (where hand-holding is expected) and a sexual relation (which is <officially> disapproved of and therefore not to be made public).” “In the days of Carthage, the city was known for its perfumed male prostitutes and courtesans. After Carthage was destroyed in the Punic wars, Tunisia became a Roman colony. The country did not regain its independence until modern times. The Romans were supplanted by the Vandals, who in turn surrendered the country to the Byzantine Empire. The rise of the followers of Muhammad swept Tunisia out of Christendom forever, and the country eventually passed into the Turkish Empire, where it remained until the French protectorate.”
“Marxist societies abominate homosexuality, and this influence has had a chilling effect on Algeria. The passing tourist will see nothing of such activity, although residents may have a different experience. Another fact is that Algerians do not like the French (because of the war) and this dislike is frequently extended to all people who look like Frenchmen, though they may be Canadian or Polish. It is a strange country, where you can spot signs saying <Parking Reserved for the National Liberation Front> (the stalls are filled with Mercedes Benzes), and also the only place in all of North Africa where the present writer has even seen a large graffito proclaiming <Nous voulons vivre français!> (We want to live as Frenchmen!).
The adventures of Oscar Wilde and André Gide in Tunisia and Algeria before the war are good evidence that this modern difference between the two countries was in fact caused by the trauma of the war. There is better evidence in the history of Algiers long before. During the 16th and 17th centuries, Algiers was possibly the leading homosexual city in the world. It was the leading Ottoman naval and administrative center in the western Mediterranean, and was key to Turkey’s foreign trade with every country but Italy. Of the major North African cities, it was the furthest from the enemy – Europe. It was the most Turkish city in North Africa, in fact the most Turkish city outside Turkey.”
“The bath-houses (hammams) of Fez were the object of scandalous comments around 1500. Two factors assume a bolder relief in Morocco, although they are typical of North Africa as a whole. One is a horror of masturbation. This dislike, combined with the seclusion of good women and the diseases of prostitutes, leads many a Maghrebi [africano setentrional] to regard anal copulation with a friend as the only alternative open to him, and clearly superior to masturbation. It also leads
to such behavior being regarded as a mere peccadillo. The other, more peculiarly Moroccan tradition is that of baraka, a sort of <religious good luck>. It is believed that a saintly man can transmit some of this baraka to other men by the mechanism of anal intercourse. (Fellatio has traditionally been regarded with disgust in the region, although the 20th century has been changing attitudes.)”
Malek Chebel, L’Esprit de sérail: Perversions et marginalités sexuelles au
Magreb, Paris: Lieu Commun, 1988.
ALCIBIADES
“Reared in the household of his guardian and uncle Pericles, he became the eromenos and later intimate friend of Socrates, who saved his life in battle. His, brilliance enabled him in 420 to become leader of the extreme democratic faction, and his imperialistic designs led Athens into an alliance with Argos and other foes of Sparta, a policy largely discredited by the Spartan victory at Mantinea. He sponsored the plan for a Sicilian expedition to outflank Sparta, which ended after his recall in the capture of thousands of Athenians, most of whom died in the salt mines where they were confined, but soon after the fleet reached Sicily his enemies recalled him on the pretext of his complicity in the mutilation of the Hermae, the phallic pillars marking boundaries between lots of land. He escaped, however, to Sparta and became the adviser of the Spartan high command. Losing the confidence of the Spartans and accused of impregnating the wife of one of Sparta’s two kings, he fled to Persia, then tried to win reinstatement at Athens by winning Persian support for the city and promoting an oligarchic revolution, but without success. Then being appointed commander by the Athenian fleet at Samos, he displayed his military skills for several years and won a brilliant victory at Cyzicus in 410, but reverses in battle and political intrigue at home led to his downfall, and he was finally murdered in Phrygia in 404 [Sócrates, mais velho, foi condenado apenas em 399]. Though an outstanding politician and military leader, Alcibiades compromised himself by the excesses of his sexual life, which was not confined to his own sex, but was uninhibitedly bisexual, as was typical of a member of the Athenian aristocracy. The Attic comedians scolded him for his adventures; Aristophanes wrote a play (now lost) entitled Triphales (The man with three phalli), in which Alcibiades’ erotic exploits were satirized. In his youth, admired by the whole of Athens for his beauty, he bore on his coat of arms an Eros hurling a lightning bolt. Diogenes Laertius said of him that <when a young man, he separated men from their wives, and later, wives from their husbands,> while the comedian Pherecrates declared that <Alcibiades, who once was no man, is now the man of all women>. He gained a bad reputation for introducing luxurious practices into Athenian life, and even his dress was reproached for extravagance. He combined the ambitious political careerist and the bisexual dandy, a synthesis possible only in a society that tolerated homosexual expression and even a certain amount of heterosexual licence in its public figures. His physical beauty alone impressed his contemporaries enough to remain an inseparable part of his historical image.”
Walter Ellis, Alcibiades, New York: Routledge, 1989;
Jean Hatzfeld, Alcibiade: Étude sur l’histoire d’Athènes à la fin du Ve siècle, Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1951.
ANARCHISM
“Étienne de la Boétie (1530-1563) and William Godwin (1756-1836) wrote two proto-anarchist classics. Boétie’s Discours de la servitude voluntaire (1552-53) (translated as The Politics of Obedience and as The Will to Bondage) is still read by anarchists.” Ver excertos em Português em http://xtudotudo6.zip.net/arch2012-11-01_2012-11-30.html.
“Pederasty comes not so much from lack of marriage bed as from a hazy yearning for masculine beauty.”Proudhon
“The boy-lover John Henry Mackay (1864-1933), who wrote widely on both pederastic (under the pseudonym Sagitta) and anarchist topics, prepared the first (and only) biography of Stirner in 1898.”
“Karl Marx & Frederick Engels had a personal disgust for homosexuality (Engels told Marx to be grateful that they were too old to attract homosexuals). Marx published full-length diatribes against Proudhon, Stirner, and Bakunin. He used Bakunin’s relationship to Nechaev as an excuse for expelling the anarchists from the International in 1872. Lenin later denounced anarchists as politically <infantile>, just as Freudians argued that homosexuality was an arrested infantile (or adolescent) development.”
“Thomas Bell, a gay secretary of Frank Harris and a trick[?] of Wilde’s, has written a book on Wilde’s anarchism, available only in Portuguese.[!]”
“In Spain during the Civil War (1936-39), anarchists fought against both the fascists and the communists, and for a time dominated large areas of the country. Many gay men and lesbians volunteered to fight in the war, while others worked as ambulance drivers and medics.”
“Emma Goldman (1869-1940) is unquestionably the first person to lecture publicly in the United States on homosexual emancipation”
“Whether from choice or necessity, anarchists have written extensively against prisons and in favor of prisoners, many of whom either from choice or necessity have experienced prison homosexuality. William Godwin opposed punishment of any kind and all anarchists have opposed any enforced sexuality.”
“Both anarchists and gays can be found in the Punk Rock movement. Since many anarchists do not really believe in organizations, they can often be as hard to identify as homosexuals once were. During the early 80s at the New York Gay Pride marches, gay anarchists, S/M groups, gay atheists, NAMBLA, Pag Rag and others all marched together with banners as individual members drifted back and forth between all the groups.”
“A major question is whether homosexuals are inherently attracted to anarchism or whether homosexuals have been equally attracted to democracy, communism, fascism, monarchy, nationalism or capitalism. Because of the secrecy, no one can ever figure what percentage of homosexuals are anarchists and what percentage of anarchists are homosexual. But only among anarchists has there been a consistent commitment, rooted in basic principles of the philosophy, to build a society in which every person is free to express him- or herself sexually in every way.”
ANDERSEN, HANS CHRISTIAN
“His fame rests upon the 168 fairy tales and stories which he wrote between 1835 and 1872. Some of the very first became children’s classics from the moment of their appearance; the tales have since been translated into more than 100 languages. Some are almost child-like in their simplicity; others are so subtle and sophisticated that they can be properly appreciated only by adults.”
“It has been speculated that the fairy tale The Little Mermaid, completed in January 1837, is based on Andersen’s self-identification with a sexless creature with a fish’s tail who tragically loves a handsome prince, but instead of saving her own future as a mermaid by killing the prince and his bride sacrifices herself and commits suicide – another theme of early homosexual apologetic literature.”
ANDROGYNY
“There is a tendency to consider androgyny primarily psychic and constitutional, while hermaphroditism is anatomical.”
“with reference to male human beings <androgynous> implies effeminacy. Logically, it should then mean <viraginous, masculinized> when applied to women, but this parallel is rarely drawn.Thus there is an unanalyzed tendency to regard androgynization as essentially a process of softening or mitigating maleness. Stereotypically, the androgyne is a half-man or incomplete male. In addition to these relatively specific usages there is a kind of semantic halo effect, whereby androgyny is taken to refer to a more all-encompassing realm. Significantly, in this broader, almost mystical sense the negative connotations fall away, and androgyny may even be a prized quality. For example the figures in the Renaissance paintings of Botticelli and Leonardo are sometimes admired for their androgynous beauty. It comes as no surprise that these aspects of the artists were first emphasized by homosexual art critics of the 19th century.”
“In Hinduism and some African religions there are male gods who have female manifestations or avatars. A strand of Jewish medieval interpretation of Genesis holds that Adam and Eve were androgynous before the Fall. If this be the case, God himself must be androgynous since he made man <in his own image>. Working from different premises, medieval Christian mystics found that the compassion of Christ required that he be conceived of as a mother. Jakob Böhme (1575-1624), the German seer, held that all perfect beings, Christ as well as the angels, were androgynous. He foresaw that ultimately Christ’s sacrifice would make possible a restoration of the primal androgyny.”
“androgyny points the way to a return to the Golden Age, an era of harmony unmarred by the conflict and dissension of today which are rooted in an unnatural polarization.”
Mircea Eliade, Mephistopheles and the Androgyne, New York: Harper and Row, 1965.
ANIMAL HOMOSEXUALITY
“In the 1970s the well-publicized reports of the German ethologist Konrad Lorenz drew attention to male-male pair bonds in greylag geese. Controlled reports of <lesbian> behavior among birds, in which two females share the responsibilities of a single nest, have existed since 1885. Mounting behavior has been observed among male lizards, monkeys, and mountain goats. In some cases one male bests the other in combat, and then mounts his fellow, engaging in penile thrusts – though rarely with intromission. In other instances, a submissive male will <present> to a dominant one, by exhibiting his buttocks in a receptive manner. Mutual masturbation and fellatio have been observed among male stump-tailed macaques. During oestrus female rhesus monkeys engage in mutual full-body rubbing. Those who have observed these same-sex patterns in various species have noted, explicitly or implicitly, similarities with human behavior. It is vital, however, not to elide differences. Mounting behavior may not be sexual, but an expression of social hierarchy: the dominant partner reaffirms his superiority over the presenting one. In most cases where a sexual pairing does occur, one partner adopts the characteristic behavior of the other sex. While this behavioral inversion sometimes occurs in human homosexual conduct, it is by no means universal. Thus while (say) Roman homosexuality, which often involved slaves submitting to their masters, may find its analogue among animals, modern American androphilia largely does not. This difference suggests that the cultural matrix is important.” “In the light of this complexity, a simple identification of human homosexual behavior with same-sex interactions among animals is reductive, and may block or misdirect the search for an understanding of the remaining mysteries of human sexuality. Still, for those aspects to which they have relevance, animal patterns of homosexual behavior help to place human ones in a phylogenetic perspective – in somewhat the same way as animal cries and calls have a relation to human language, and the structures built by birds and beavers anticipate the feats of human architecture.”
ARISTOCRATIC VICE
“In the 17th century Sir Edward Coke attributed the origin of sodomy to <pride, excess of diet, idleness and contempt of the poor>. The noted English jurist was in fact offering a variation on the prophet Ezekiel (16:49). This accusation reflects the perennial truism that wealth, idleness, and lust tend to go together – a cluster summed up in the Latin term luxuria.”
“The stereotype of aristocratic vice has a sequel in the early 20th-century Marxist notion that the purported increase of homosexuality in modem industrial states stems from the decadence of capitalism; in this view the workers fortunately remain psychologically healthy and thus untainted by the debilitating proclivity. In the Krupp and von Moltke-Eulenburg scandals in Germany in 1903-08, journalists of the socialist press did their best to inflame their readership against the unnatural vices of the aristocracy, which were bringing the nation to the brink of ruin.”
ARISTOTLE
“As a thinker Aristotle is outstanding for the breadth of his interests, which encompassed the entire panorama of the ancient sciences, and for his efforts to make sense of the world through applying an organic and developmental approach. In this way he departed from the essentialist, deductive emphasis of Plato. Unfortunately, Aristotle’s polished essays, which were noted for their style, are lost, and the massive corpus of surviving works derives largely from lecture notes. In these the wording of the Greek presents many uncertainties”
“Although Aristotle is known to have had several male lovers, in his writings he tended to follow Plato’s lead in favoring restraints on overt expression of homoerotic feelings. He differs, however, from Plato’s ethical and idealizing approach to male same-sex love by his stress on biological factors. In a brief but important treatment in the Nicomachean Ethics (7:5) he was the first to distinguish clearly between innate and acquired homosexuality. This dichotomy corresponds to a standard Greek distinction between processes which are determined by nature (physis) and those which are conditioned by culture or custom (nomos).The approach set forth in this text was to be echoed a millennium and a half later in the Christian Scholastic treatments of Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas (Summa Theologiae, 31:7). In The History of Animals (9:8), Aristotle anticipates modem ethology by showing that homosexual behavior among birds is linked to patterns of domination and submission. In various passages he speaks of homosexual relations among noted Athenian men and boys as a matter of course. His treatment of friendship (Nicomachean Ethics, books 8 and 9) emphasizes its mutual character, based on the equality of the parties, which requires time for full consolidation. He takes it as given that true friendship can occur only between two free males of equal status, excluding slaves and women. Aristotle’s ideas on friendship were to be echoed by Cicero, Erasmus, Michel de Montaigne, and Francis Bacon.
The Problems (4:26), a work attributed to Aristotle but probably compiled by a follower, attributes desire for anal intercourse in men to the accumulation of semen in the fundament. This notion derives from the common Greek medical view that semen is produced in the region of the brain and then transferred by a series of conduits to the lower body.
In England and America a spurious compilation of sexual and generative knowledge, Aristotle’s Masterpiece, enjoyed a long run of popularity. Compiled from a variety of sources, including the Hippocratic and Galenic medical traditions, the medieval writings of Albertus Magnus, and folklore of all kinds, this farrago was apparently first published in English in 1684. A predecessor of later sex manuals, the book contains such lore as the determination of the size of the penis from that of the nose.”
ART, VISUAL
“Before the 16th century, we find only representations of friendship between women; then in the Venetian school there begins an imagery of lesbian dalliance – but only for male entertainment. Only in recent decades has there been a substantial production of lesbian art by lesbians and for lesbians.”
pe(re)nial tradition
“In antiquity the Greeks were noted for their national peculiarity of exercising in the nude. Out of this custom grew the monumental nude statue, a genre that Greece bequeathed to the world. The tradition began a little before 600 B.C. with the sequence of nude youths known as kowoi. (Monumental female nudes did not appear until ca. 350 B.C.) Although archeologists have maintained a deafening silence on the matter, it seems clear that the radiance of these figures can only be explained in the light of the Greek homoerotic appreciation of the male form. Whatever else they may have been, the kowoi were the finest pin-ups ever created.”
“The Romans did not share the Greek fondness for nude exercise and their attitude toward homosexual behavior was more ambiguous. Perhaps it is not surprising that they favored the old religious subject of the hermaphrodite, the double-sexed being, but now reduced largely to a subject of titillation [erotização – vulgarização]. They also were capable of depicting scenes of peeping toms [machos, provavelmente felinos] that recall the atmosphere of Petronius’s Satyricon.”
“After the reign of Hadrian, who died in 138, the great age of ancient homoerotic art was over. Consequently, the adoption of Christianity cannot be said to have killed off a vibrant tradition, but it certainly did not encourage its revival.”
“Since Freud’s essay of 1910 the enigmatic figure of Leonardo has offered a special appeal.”
“By the turn of the century magazines began to appear in Germany presenting, by means of photographic reproduction, works appealing exclusively to male homosexual taste; lesbian magazines were only to emerge after World War I. Exceptionally, the American George Piatt Lynes (1907-1955) pursued a career in both mainstream and gay media (the latter in his extensive work for the Swiss magazine, Dei Kreis).”
“Although the Surrealists sought to explore sexuality, the homophobia of their leader André Breton placed a ban on gay subjects – or at least male ones. Two related figures did explore in this realm however, the writer Jean Cocteau (1889-1963), with his drawings of sailors, and the Argentine-born painter Leonor Fini (b. 1908), with enigmatic scenes of women. The ambitious Russian-born Pavel Tchelitchev (1898-1957), connected with several avant-garde circles in Europe and America, also belongs in this company.”
“It may be doubted that the long-standing premises of the modernist aesthetic – its sense of discontinuity, irony, and high seriousness – have been definitively overcome, but there is no doubt that the boundaries of the acceptable have been broadened. This enlargement creates opportunities for gay and lesbian artists. At the same time, however, the tyranny of the market and of critical stereotypes is as great as ever, so that artists are under great pressure to settle into niches that have been prepared for them. It should be remembered that many painters, sculptors, and photographers whose personal orientation is homosexual are as reluctant to be styled <gay artists> as they are to be called neo-expressionist, neo-mannerist, or some other label.”
BALZAC
“Vautrin’s secret is that he does not love women, but when and how does he love men? He does so only in the rents of the fabric of the narrative, because the technique of the novelist lies exactly in not speaking openly, but letting the reader know indirectly the erotic background of the events of his story. The physical union of Vautrin with Lucien he presents with stylistic subtlety as a predestined coupling of two halves of one being, as submission to a law of nature. The homosexual aspect of the discourse must always be masked, must hide behind a euphemism, a taunting ambiguity that nevertheless tells all to the knowing reader. The pact struck between Vautrin and Lucien is a Faustian one. Vautrin dreams of owning a plantation in the American South (sic) where on a 100,000 acres he can have absolute power over his slaves – including their bodies. Balzac refers explicitly to examples of the pederasty of antiquity as a creative, civilization-building force by analogy with the Promethean influence of Vautrin upon his beloved Lucien. Vautrin is almost diabolical as a figure of exuberant masculinity, while Lucien embodies the gentleness and meekness of the feminine. The unconscious dimension of their relationship Balzac underlines with magnificent symbolism. He characterizes Vautrin as a monster, <but attached by love to humanity>.Homosexual love is not relegated to the margin of society, as in the dark underworld of the prison, but expresses the fullness of affection with all its physical demands and its spiritual powers.”
“Having revealed to the hero and heroine an ideal love, Séraphitus-Séraphita departs for a heaven free of the earthly misery that human beings must endure.”
BARTHES, ROLAND
“Barthes introduced into the discussion of literature an original interpretation of semiotics based on the work of the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure. His work was associated with the structuralist trend as represented by Claude Lévi-Strauss, Julia Kristeva, Tzvetan Todorov, and others. Attacked by the academic establishment for subjectivism, he formulated a concept of criticism as a creative process on an equal plane with fiction and poetry. Even those favorable to his work conceded that this could amount to a <sensuous manhandling> of the text. The turning point in his criticism is probably the tour de forceS/Z (Paris, 1970), analyzing Balzac’s novella about an aging castrato, Sarrasine. Here Barthes turns away from the linear, goal-oriented procedures of traditional criticism in favor of a new mode that is dispersed, deliberately marginal, and <masturbatory>. In literature, he emphasized the factor of jouissance, a word which means both <bliss> and <sexual ejaculation>. Whether these procedures constitute models for a new feminist/gay critical practice that will erode the power of patriarchy, as some of his admirers have asserted, remains unclear.”
“Barthes, who never married, was actively homosexual during most of his life. Although his books are often personal, in his writing he excluded this major aspect of his experience, even when writing about love. Because of the attacks launched against him for his critical innovations, he was apparently reluctant to give his enemies an additional stick with which to beat him. Barthes’ posthumously published Incidents (Paris, 1987) does contain some revealing diary entries. The first group stems from visits he made, evidently in part for sexual purposes, to North Africa in 1968-69. The second group of entries records restless evenings in Paris in the autumn of 1979 just before his death. These jottings reveal that, despite his great fame, he frequently experienced rejection and loneliness. Whatever his personal sorrows, Barthes’ books remain to attest a remarkable human being whose activity coincided with an ebullient phase of Western culture.”
Sanford Freedman, Roland Barthes: A Bibliographical Reader’s Guide, New York: Garland, 1983.
BEAT GENERATION
“The origins of this trend in American culture can be traced to the friendship of three key figures in New York City at the beginning of the 1940s. Allen Ginsberg (1926-[1997]) and Jack Kerouac (1922-1969) met as students at Columbia University, where both were working at becoming writers. In 1944 Ginsberg encountered the somewhat older William Burroughs (1914-[1997]), who was not connected with the University, but whose acquaintance with avant-garde literature supplied an essential intellectual complement to college study. Both Ginsberg and Burroughs were homosexual; Kerouac bisexual. At first the ideas and accomplishments of the three were known only to a small circle. But toward the end of the 1950s, as their works began to be published and widely read, large numbers of young people, <beatniks> and <hippies>, took up elements of their life-style.”
“The word beat was sometimes traced to <beatific>, and sometimes to <beat out> and similar expressions, suggesting a pleasant exhaustion that derives from intensity of experience. Its appeal also reflects the beat and improvisation of jazz music, one of the principal influences on the trend. Some beat poets tried to match their writings with jazz in ballroom recitals, prefiguring the more effective melding of words and music in folk and rock. The ideal of spontaneity was one of the essential elements of the beat aesthetic. These writers sought to capture the immediacy of speech and lived experience, which were, if possible, to be transcribed directly as they occurred. This and related ideals reflect a new version of American folk pragmatism, preferring life to theory, immediacy to reflection, and feeling to reason. Contrary to what one might expect, however, the beat generation was not anti-intellectual, but chose to seek new sources of inspiration in neglected aspects of the European avant-garde and in Eastern thought and religion.”
“First published in Paris in 1959, his novel Naked Lunchbecame available in the United States only after a series of landmark obscenity decisions. With its phantasmagoric and sometimes sexually explicit subject matter, together with its quasi-surrealist techniques of narrative and syntactic disjunction, this novel presented a striking new vision. This novel was followed by The Soft Machineand The Ticket That Explodedto form a trilogy. Nova Express (1964) makes extensive use of the <cut-up> techniques, which Burroughs had developed with his friend Brion Gysin. A keen observer of contemporary reality in several countries, Burroughs has sought to present a kind of <world upside down> in order to sharpen the reader’s consciousness. One of his major themes has been his anarchist-based protest against what he sees as increasingly repressive social control through such institutions as medicine and the police. Involved with
drugs for some years, he managed to kick the habit, but there is no doubt that such experiences shaped his viewpoint. His works have been compared to pop art in painting and science fiction in literature. Sometimes taxed for misogyny, his world tends to be a masculine one, sometimes exploiting fantasies of regression to a hedonistic world of juvenile freedom. Burroughs’s hedonism is acerbic and ironic, and his mixture of qualities yields a distorting mirror of reality which some have found, because perhaps of the many contradictions of later 20th-century civilization itself, to be a compelling representation.”
Ted Morgan, Literary Outlaw: The Life and Times of William Burroughs, New York: Henry Holt, 1988.
BEATS AND HIPPIES
“The journalistic word <beatnik> is a pseudo-Slavic coinage of a type popular in the 1960s, the core element deriving from <beat> (generation), the suffix -nik being the formative of the noun of agent in Slavic languages. The term <hippie> was originally a slightly pejorative diminutive of the beat <hipster>, which in turn seems to derive from 1940s jivetalk adjective <hep>, meaning <with it, in step with current fashions>. The original hippies were a younger group with more spending money and more flamboyant dress. Their music was rock instead of the jazz of the beats. Despite differences that seemed important at the time, beats and hippies are probably best regarded as successive phases of a single phenomenon.”
“Attracted by the prestige of the beat writers, many beats/hippies cultivated claims to be poets and philosophers. In reality, once the tendency became modish only a few of the beat recruits were certifiably creative in literature and the arts; these individuals were surrounded by masses of people attracted by the atmosphere of revolt and experiment, or just seeking temporary separation – a moratorium as it was then called – from the banalities of ordinary American life. At its height the phenomenon supported scores of underground newspapers, which were read avidly by curious outsiders as well.”
“Significantly, the street term for the Other, <straight>, could refer either to non-drug users or heterosexuals.”
“Mysticism exerted a potent influence among beats and hippies, and some steeped themselves in Asian religions, especially Buddhism, Taoism, and Sufism. This fascination was not new, inasmuch as ever since the foundation of Theosophy as an official movement in 1875, American and other western societies had been permeated by Eastern religious elements. Impelled by a search for wisdom and cheap living conditions, many hippies and beatniks set out for prolonged sojourns in India, Nepal, and North Africa. Stay-at-homes professed their deep respect for American Indian culture.”
“Most hippies were heterosexual, but their long hair exposed them to jibes of effeminacy. In this way they could experience something of the rejection that had always been the lot of homosexuals.”
“With its adoption of a variant of jive talk, largely derived from black urban speech, the movement has left a lasting impression on the English vernacular, as seen in such expressions as <cool>, <spaced out>, and <rip off>.”
Marco Vassi, The Stoned Apocalypse, New York: Trident, 1972.
BENTHAM, JEREMY (1748-1832)
“English philosopher and law reformer. Bentham was the founder of the Utilitarian school of social philosophy, which held that legislation should promote the greatest happiness of the greatest number. (…) His Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789) was eventually extremely influential in England, France, Spain, and Latin America where several new republics adopted constitutions and penal codes drawn up by him or inspired by his writings.
Bentham’s utilitarian ethics led him to favor abolition of laws prohibiting homosexual behavior. English law in his day (and until 1861) prescribed hanging for sodomy and during the early 19th century was enforced with, on the average, 2 or 3 hangings a year. Bentham held that relations between men were a source of sexual pleasure that did not lead to unwanted pregnancies and hence a social good rather than a social evil. He wrote extensive notes favoring law reform about 1774 and a 50-page manuscript essay in 1785. In 1791, the French National Assembly repealed France’s sodomy law but in England the period of reaction that followed the outbreak of the French Revolution made reforms impossible. In 1814 and 1816 Bentham returned to the subject and wrote lengthy critiques of traditional homophobia which he regarded as an irrational prejudice leading to <cruelty and intolerance>. In 1817-18 he wrote over 300 pages of notes on homosexuality and the Bible. Homophobic sentiment was, however, so intense in England, both in the popular press and in learned circles, that Bentham did not dare to publish any of his writings on this subject. They remained in manuscript until 1931 when C.K. Ogden included brief excerpts in an appendix to his edition of Bentham’s Theory of Legislation. Bentham’s manuscript writings on this subject are excerpted and described in detail in Louis Crompton’s 1985 monograph on Byron. Bentham’s views on homosexuality are sufficiently positive that he might be described as a precursor of the modern gay liberation movement. Bentham not only treats legal, literary, and religious aspects of the subject in his notes, but also finds support for his opinions in ancient history and comparative anthropology.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY
“The emergence of systematic bibliographical control had to await the birth of the first homosexual emancipation movement in Berlin in 1897. This movement firmly held that progress toward homosexual rights must go hand in hand with intellectual enlightenment. Accordingly, each year’s production was noted in the annual volumes of the Jahrbuch fur sexuelle Zwischenstufen (1899-1923); by the end of the first ten years of monitoring over 1,000 new titles had been recorded. Although surveys were made of earlier literature, up to the time of the extinction of the movement by National-Socialism in 1933, no attempt had been made to organize this material into a single comprehensive bibliography of homosexual studies. Nonetheless, much valuable material was noted in the vast work of Magnus Hirschfeld, Die Homosexualität des Mannes und des Weisses (Berlin, 1914).”
Athenaeus (fl. ca. A.D. 200), Deipnosophists, Book 13;
Félix Buffiére, Eros adolescent: la pederastie dans la Grece antique (Paris, 1980);
Vern Bullough et al., Annotated Bibliography of Homosexuality(2 vols., New York, 1976);
Wayne R. Dynes, Homosexuality: A Research Guide (New York, 1987).
BRAZIL [HOMOPHOBIA NEWLAND] & PORTUGAL
“The Colonial Era.When the Portuguese reached Brazil in 1500, they were horrified to discover so many Indians who practiced the <unspeakable sin of sodomy>. In the Indian language they were called tivira, and André Thevet, chaplain to Catherine de Medici, described them in 1575 with the word bardache, perhaps the first occasion on which this term was used to describe Amerindian homosexuals. The native women also had relations with one another: according to the chroniclers they were completely <inverted> in appearance, work, and leisure, preferring to die rather than accept the name of women. Perhaps these cacoaimbeguire contributed to the rise of the New World Amazon myth.
In their turn the blacks – more than 5 million were imported during almost 4 centuries of slavery – made a major contribution to the spread of homosexuality in the <Land of the Parrots>. The first transvestite in Brazilian history was a black named Francisco, of the Mani-Congo tribe, who was denounced in 1591 by the Inquisition visitors, but refused to discard women’s clothing. Francisco was a member of the brotherhood of the quimbanba, homosexual fetishists who were well known and respected in the old kingdom of Congo-Angola. Less well established than among the Amerindians and Africans, the Portuguese component (despite the menace of the Tribunal of the Holy Office, 1536-62) continued unabated during the whole history of the kingdom, involving 3 rulers and innumerable notables, and earning sodomy the sobriquet of the <vice of the clergy>. If we compare Portugal with the other European countries of the Renaissance – not excluding England and the Netherlands – our documentation (abundant in the archives of the Inquisition) requires the conclusion that Lisbon and the principal cities of the realm, including the overseas metropolises of Bahia and Rio de Janeiro, boasted a gay subculture that was stronger, more vital, and more stratified than those of other lands, reflecting the fact that Luso-Brazilian gays were accorded more tolerance and social acceptance. Thirty sodomites were burned by the Inquisition during 3 centuries of repression, but none in Brazil, despite the more than 300 who were denounced for practicing the <evil sin>. They were referred to as sodomitas and fanchonos.
Independence. With Brazilian independence and the promulgation of the first constitution (1823) under the influence of the Napoleonic Code, homosexual behavior ceased to be criminal, and from this date forward there has been no Brazilian law restricting homosexuality[Bolsonaro e seu séquito se encontram quase 200 anos enterrados na História; me admira que não tenham morrido asfixiados em seu ideal de mundo até agora!] – apart from the prohibition with persons less than 18 years of age, the same as for heterosexuals. Lesbianism, outlawed by the Inquisition since 1646, had always been less visible than male homosexuality in Brazil, and there is no record of any mulher-macho (<male woman>) burned by the Portuguese Inquisition. In the course of Brazilian history various persons of note were publicly defamed for practicing homosexuality: in the 17th century 2 Bahia governors, Diogo Botelho and Câmara Coutinho, both contemporaries of the major satirical poet, Gregorio de Matos, author of the oldest known poem about a lesbian in the Americas, Nise. He himself was brought before the Inquisition for blasphemy in saying that <Jesus Christ was a sodomite>. [HAHAHA!] In the 19th century the revolutionary leader Sabino was accused of homosexual practices. A considerable surviving correspondence between Empress Leopoldina, consort of the Brazil’s first sovereign, Dom Pedro, with her English lady in waiting, Maria Graham, attests that they had both a homosexual relationship and an intense homoemotional reciprocity. Such famous poets and writers as Álvares de Azevedo (1831-1852), Olavo Bilac (1865-1918), and Mário de Andrade (1893-1945) rank among the votaries of Ganymede. The list also includes the pioneer of Brazilian aeronautics, Alberto Santos-Dumont (1873-1932), after whose airship the pommes Santos-Dumont were named. At the end of the 19th century homosexuality appears as a literary theme. In 1890 Aluizio Azevedo included a realistic lesbian scene in O Cortiço, and in 1895 Adolfo Caminha devoted the entire novel O Bom Crioulo(which has been translated into English) to a love affair between a cabin boy and his black protector. In the faculties of medicine of Rio de Janeiro and Bahia various theses addressed the homosexual question, beginning with O Androfilismo of Domingos Firmínio Ribeiro (1898) and O Homosexualismo: A Libertinagem no Rio de Janeiro (1906) by Pires de Almeida – both strongly influenced by the European psychiatrists Moll, Krafft-Ebing, and Tardieu. From 1930 comes the first and most outspoken Brazilian novel on lesbianism, O Terceiro Sexo, by Odilon Azevedo, where lesbian workers founded an association intended to displace men from power, thus setting forth a radical feminist discourse.”
“In 1976 appeared the main gay journal of Brazilian history, O Lampião (The Lantern)[!], which had a great positive effect on the rise of the Brazilian homosexual movement.” “One of the chief battles of gay activists is to denounce the repeated murders of homosexuals – about every 10 days the newspapers report a homophobic crime.”
“Recently the transvestite Roberta Close appeared on the cover of the main national magazines, receiving the accolade of <the model of the beauty of the Brazilian woman>. In the mid-1980s more than 400 Brazilian transvestites could be counted in the Bois de Boulogne in Paris; many also offer themselves in Rome. When they hear the statistics of the Kinsey Report, Brazilian gays smile, suggesting through experience and <participant observation> that in Brazil the proportion of predominantly homosexual men is as high as 30%.”
“Brazil, once the paradise of gays, has entered a difficult path.” Premonitório. Mas falava apenas da AIDS.
BUDDHISM
“Among world religions, Buddhism has been notable for the absence of condemnation of homosexuality as such.”
“For an account of the earliest form of Buddhism, scholars look to the canonical texts of the Tipitaka preserved in the Pali language and transmitted orally until committed to writing in the 2nd century B.C. These scriptures remain authoritative for the Theravada or Hinayana school of Buddhism, now dominant in Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka. The Pali Canon draws a sharp distinction between the path of the lay-person and that of the bhikkhu (mendicant monk, an ordained member of the Buddhist Sangha or Order). The former is expected primarily to support the Sangha and to improve his karmic standing through the performance of meritorious deeds so that his future lives will be more fortunate than his present one. The bhikkhu, in contrast, is expected to devote all his energies to self-liberation, the struggle to cast off the attachments which prevent him from attaining the goal of nirvana in the present lifetime.”
“all acts involving the intentional emission of his semen are prohibited for the monk; the insertion of the penis into a female or male is grounds for automatic expulsion from the Sangha, while even masturbation is a (lesser) offense.” “there is no law against a monk receiving a penis into his own body.”
“The full rules of the vinaya are not applied to the samanera or novice monk, who may be taken into the Sangha as early as 7 years old and who is generally expected though not obligated to take the Higher Ordination by the age of 21. In this way the more intense sexual drive of the male teenager is tacitly allowed for. A samanera may masturbate without committing an offense. Interestingly, while a novice commits a grave offense if he engages in coitus with a female, requiring him to leave the Sangha, should he instead have sex with a male he is only guilty of a lesser offense requiring that he reaffirms his samanera vows and perform such penance as is directed by his teacher. This may be the only instance of a world religion treating homosexual acts more favorably than heterosexual ones.”
“it has been speculated that homosexual orientation may arise from the residual karma of a previous life spent in the opposite gender from that of the body currently occupied by the life-continuum. This explanation contains no element of negativity but rather posits homosexuality as a <natural> result of the rebirth cycle.”
“The form of Buddhism which spread northward into Tibet, China, Japan, Korea, and Mongolia from its Indian heartland came to be known as the Mahayana. It de-emphasized the dichotomy between monk and lay-person and relaxed the strict vinaya codes, even permitting monks to marry (in Japan). The Mahayana doctrinally sought to obliterate categorical thinking in general and resolutely fought against conceptual dualism. These tendencies favored the development of positive attitudes toward homosexual practices, most notably in Japan.”
“When Father Francis Xavier arrived in Japan in the mid-16th century with the hope of converting the Japanese to Christianity, he was horrified upon encountering many Buddhist monks involved in same-sex relationships; indeed, he soon began referring to homoeroticism as the <Japanese vice>. Although some Buddhist monks condemned such relationships, notably the monk Genshin, many others either accepted or participated in same-sex relationships. Among Japanese Buddhist sects in which such relationships have been documented are the Jishu, Hokkeshu, Shingon, and Zen.”
“Zen, that form of Buddhism perhaps most familiar to Westerners, emerged during the 9th century. In the Zen monasteries of medieval Japan, same-sex relations, both between monks and between monks and novices (known as kasshiki and shami), appear to have been so commonplace that the shogun Hojo Sadatoki (whom we might now refer to as <homophobic>) initiated an unsuccessful campaign in 1303 to rid the monasteries of same-sex love. Homoerotic relationships occurring within a Zen Buddhist context have been documented in such literary works as the Gozan Bungaku, Iwatsutsuji, and Comrade Loves of the Samurai [1972]. The blending of Buddhism and homoeroticism has continued to figure prominently in the works of contemporary Japanese writers, notably Yukio Mishima and Mutsuo Takahashi.”
“the Gelugpas [seita tibetana dos Lamas que se sucedem] condemned heterosexual intercourse for monks, believing that the mere odor resulting from heterosexual copulation could provoke the rage of certain deities. Such misogynistic and anti-heterosexual notions may have encouraged same-sex bonding.”
“Among those who may be credited with introducing the West to Buddhism are Walt Whitman and Henry David Thoreau, both of whom are thought to have loved members of the same sex and both of whom blended elements of Buddhism with elements of other spiritual traditions in their work. In the latter half of the 20th century, many American gays are practitioners of Buddhism, and the blending of homoeroticism and Buddhism may be found in the work of a number of gay American writers and musicians including Allen Ginsberg, Harold Norse, Richard Ronan, Franklin Abbott, and Lou Harrison.”
BYRON
“The most influential poet of his day, with a world-wide reputation, Byron became famous with the publication of Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage (1812-
18), an account of his early travels in Portugal, Spain, Albania, and Greece. The proud, gloomy, guilt-ridden, alienated Harold defined the <Byronic hero> who was to reappear in various guises in Byron’s later poems, notably in Manfred, The Corsair, and Lara. The type became a defining image for European and American romanticism. Forced into exile in 1816 because of the scandal caused by his wife’s leaving him, Byron settled in Italy, principally in Venice. There he wrote his sparkling satire on cant and hypocrisy, Don Juan. He spent the last months of his life in Greece, trying to help the Greeks in their struggle to gain independence from the Turks.”
“Because of the intense homophobia of English society these poems were ostensibly addressed to a woman, as the name Thyrza and Byron’s use of feminine pronouns implied.”
“publicity about his love affair with his half-sister, Augusta Leigh, compounded the scandal [of his homosexuality].”
“Byron’s last three poems, On This Day I Complete My 36th Year, Last Words on Greece, and Love and Death, poignantly describe his love for Loukas, which was not reciprocated.”
“A surreptitiously published erotic poem, Don Leon, purporting to be Byron’s lost autobiography, probably written in 1833, had set forth many of the facts about Byron’s homosexuality but was dismissed as an unwarranted libel. An edition appeared in 1866 but it remained unknown to all but a few specialists. When the Fortune Press reprinted it in 1934, the publication was confiscated by the British police.”
CAESAR
“In addition to his three wives and several mistresses, Julius Caesar had a number of homosexual affairs.”
Arthur D. Kahn, The Education of Julius Caesar: A Biography, a Reconstruction, New York: Schocken, 1986;
“American novelist and journalist. Capote became famous at the age of 24 with his elegant, evocative book Other Voices, Other Rooms, which concerns the growing consciousness of a boy seeking to comprehend the ambivalent inhabitants of a remote Mississippi house. Dubbed <swamp baroque>, this short novel was easily assimilated into then-current notions of Southern decadence. (…) In 1966 he published In Cold Blood, a <non-fiction novel> about the seemingly senseless murder of a Kansas farm family by two drifters. In preparing for the book, Capote gained the confidence of the murderers, and was thus able to make vivid their sleazy mental universe.”
“Capote became the confidant of rich and famous people, especially women, and he gathered their stories for incorporation in a major work which was intended to rival Marcel Proust. Yet when excerpts from this work-in-progress were published in magazines, not only were they found to be vulgar and lacking in insight, but Capote began to be dropped by the socialites he had so unsubtly satirized. Dismayed, the writer sank more and more into a miasma of alcohol, cocaine, and valium – his only consolation the devoted love, or so he claimed, of a succession of straight, proletarian young men whom he prized because of their very ordinariness.”
CARAVAGGIO
“Caravaggio came under the protection of Cardinal Francesco Maria del Monte, a homosexual prelate. During this period he painted several works showing ambiguous or androgynous young men, including The Musicians (New York, Metropolitan Museum). Efforts have been made to deny the homoerotic implications of these works, but they seem feeble.”
“Only after World War II did his reputation begin to climb, attaining remarkable heights in the 1980s, when even the abstract artist Frank Stella praised him. In 1986 Derek Jarman’s stylish film Caravaggio was released, presenting the artist as bisexual, but emphasizing the homosexual side.”
Baco/Dionísio pelas mãos do pintor bissexual italiano.
CASTRATI
“The castrati were male singers emasculated in boyhood to preserve the soprano or contralto range of their voices, who from the 16th century to the 19th played roles in Italian opera.” “Boys are commonly mischievous, unruly, and troublesome, and by the time they have really been trained their voices are usually on the edge of breaking; falsettists do not share these drawbacks, but their voices have a peculiar, unpleasant quality, and as a rule cannot attain as high a range as the soprano.”
“The elaborate a cappella style, which began to flourish about the middle of the 15th century, required a much wider range of voices and a higher degree of virtuosity than anything that had gone before, and for this task the existing singers were inadequate. The first response took the form of Spanish falsettists of a special kind, but by the end of the 16th century these had yielded to the castrati, who also dominated the new baroque art form – the opera, which was the principal musical activity of the Italian nation in the next two centuries. Opera was unlike legitimate theatre in that it traveled well; it was the first form of musical entertainment that was both popular and to a certain degree international, so that a star system transcending national borders arose. Leading singers were discussed, criticized, and compared in fashionable drawing rooms from Lisbon to St. Petersburg. (…) If other nations had some form of native opera, this ranked lower on the cultural scale and was indifferently sung, while the Italian version enjoyed the highest standard of singing that had ever been known, and will in all likelihood never again be attained. France alone refused admission to Italian singers, and virtually banned the castrati; but Frenchmen, like other Europeans, were full of praise for the opera of Italy.
Since no recording devices existed in the heyday of the castrati, the modern critic has no way of judging the quality of their performance, yet 6 generations of music-lovers preferred the voices of these <half-men> to those of women themselves and of whole men.”
“In this economic stratum, however, it was accepted that any male child who betrayed the slightest aptitude for music should be sold into servitude, just as in modern Thailand children are sold by their parents to labor in factories or serve in brothels. The successful castrato naturally tried to conceal his humble origins and pose as the scion of an honorable family. The singing-masters of that era were responsible for the perfection of the art of the castrati; no one since has rivaled them in perseverance and thoroughness, and in their perfect command of the capabilities and shortcomings of the human vocal organs. They usually worked in a conservatorio, though sometimes they had their own singing schools or tutored pupils on the side.
Since canon law condemned castration and threatened anyone involved in it with excommunication, which could be reinforced by civil penalties, the business had to be carried on more or less clandestinely, and everywhere prying questions brought only misleading and deceitful answers. The town of Lecce in Apulia, and Norcia, a small town in the Papal States about 20 miles east of Spoleto, are mentioned as notorious for the practice, though the castrati themselves came from all parts of the peninsula. The doctors most esteemed for their skill in the operation were those of Bologna, and their services were in demand not just in Italy but abroad as well.”
“The curriculum entailed much hard work, and was thorough and comprehensive; as much attention was given to the theory of singing as to its actual practice. Between the ages of 15 and 20, a castrato who had retained and embellished his voice, and passed the various tests with greater or lesser distinction, was considered ready for his debut. On contract to some opera house, he would often first be seen in a female part, for which his youth and fresh complexion would particularly suit him. His looks and unfamiliarity would perhaps gain him greater success than his art would have merited, to the rage and envy of his senior colleagues. Once his name was made, he would have his clique of admirers who attended en masse his every performance and extolled him as their idol; aristocratic ladies and gentlemen would fancy themselves in love with him and manipulate a piquant interview. Backstage, the rivalry with other singers could rage with intense virulence; and a castrato who was too vain and insolent might be assassinated by the hirelings of a rival’s protector. If, however, the performer did not please his audience, he would be doomed to touring small provincial opera houses, or to performing in a church choir. Dissatisfied with his situation, he could set off for Bologna, the marketplace for the musical profession in Italy, to better his fortunes. The castrati came in for a great amount of scurrilous and unkind abuse, and as their fame increased, so did the hatred of them. They were often castigated as malign creatures who lured men into homosexuality, and there were admittedly homosexual castrati, as Casanova’s accounts of XVIII century Italy bear witness. He mentions meeting an abbé whom he
took for a girl in disguise, but was later told that it was a famous castrate. In Rome in 1762, he attended a performance at which the prima donna was a castrato, the minion of Cardinal Borghese, who supped every evening with his protector. From his behavior on stage, <it was obvious that he hoped to inspire the love of those who liked him as a man, and probably would not have done so as a woman.> He concludes by saying that the holy city of Rome forces every man to become a pederast, even if it does not believe in the effect of the illusion which the castrati provoke.”
“Opponents of castration have claimed that the practice caused its victims an early loss of voice and an untimely death, while others have affirmed that castration prolonged the life of the vocal cords, and even that of their owner. There is no solid evidence for either contention: the castrati had approximately the same life span as their contemporaries, and retired at roughly the same age as other singers. The operation appears to have had surprisingly little effect on the general health and well-being of the subject, any more than on his sexual impulses. The trauma was largely a psychological one, in an age when virility was deemed a sovereign virtue.” A castração tardia não elimina a libido, ao contrário da crença vulgar. Não há solução fácil para o dilema da energia! Eu-nuco El-niño or neverminds…
“Toward the end of the XVIII century castrati went out of fashion, and new styles in musical composition led to the disappearance of these singers. Meyerbeer was the last composer of importance to write for the male soprano voice; his Il Crociato in Egitto, produced at Venice in 1824, was designed especially for a castrato star. Succeeding generations regarded their memory with derision and disgust, and were happy to live in an age when such products of barbarism were no longer possible. A few castrati performed in the Vatican chapel and some other Roman churches until late in the XIX century, but their vogue on the operatic stage had long passed.”
Angus Heriot, The Castrati in Opera
CATAMITE
“The Latin common noun, catamitus, designating a minion or kept boy, is usually derived from the Greek proper name Ganymede(s), the favorite of Zeus. Another possible source is Kadmilos, the companion of the Theban god Kabeiros. The word entered English in 16th century as part of the Renaissance revival of classical literature, and has always retained a learned, quasi-exotic aura. The term could also be used as a verbal adjective, as <a catamited boy>.” “In modern English the termination -ite tends to be perceived as pejorative, as in Trotskyite (vs. Trotskyist) and sodomite.”
CATULLUS
“Born at Verona, he spent most of his life in Rome, but kept a villa near his birthplace at Smirno on Lake Garda. Often considered the best Republican poet, he imitated Sappho as well as other archaic, classical, and Hellenistic models, upon which he often improved, and which he combined with native Latin traditions to create stunning, original pieces. He wrote poems, 250 of which survive, of happiness and bitter disappointment. Some are addressed to his mistress Clodia, 10 years his senior, whom he addressed as Lesbia(though with no insinuation of what we now call lesbianism), and who was unfaithful to him with other men. Homophobic Christians and modern schoolmasters have, however, greatly exaggerated the importance of the poems to Lesbia, which amount to no more than 1/8 of the Catullan corpus.”
“Sophisticated and fastidious, he set the standard for the Augustan poets of love Ovid, Horace, Vergil, and Propertius. In the Silver Age even Martial acknowledged his debt to Catullus’ epigrams. Like those poets, and most specifically Tibullus, he showed little inhibition and equal attraction to boys and women, but also shared the traditional attitude that the active, full-grown male partner degraded the passive one, and that the threat to penetrate another male symbolized one’s superior virility and power. On the other hand, the accusation of having been raped by another male has a largely negative force”
CENSORSHIP AND OBSCENITY
“The practice of tolerating certain hand-produced materials clearly shows that censorship is concerned not simply with the prohibition of materials, but with the size of the audience. It is for this reason that medical and other books dealing with sexual matters formerly had the crucial details in Latin.”
“The urge to censor is probably ultimately rooted in fear of blasphemy, the apprehension that if utterances offensive to the gods are tolerated their wrath will fall on the whole society. It was impiety toward the gods for which Socrates was tried and condemned in 399 B.C. The Roman erotic poet Ovid was banished by the puritanical emperor Augustus in A.D. 8.”
“Since the monasteries had a monopoly on producing manuscripts, it was assumed that such oversight was not necessary. In fact the abbey scriptoria not only copied erotic materials from Greco-Roman times, but created their own new genres of this type. In any event, the medieval authorities were concerned more with doctrinal deviation than with obscenity.” “The centralization of printing in the hands of a relatively few firms made it possible to scrutinize their intended productions before publication; only those that had passed the test and bore the imprimatur [seal] could be printed. It was then only necessary to make sure that heretical materials were not smuggled in from abroad. In Catholic countries this system was put in place by the establishment, under the Inquisition, with the Index of Prohibited Books in 1557. In countries where the Reformation took hold the control of books was generally assumed by the government. In England the requirement that books should be licenced for printing by the privy council or other agents of the crown was introduced in 1538. These origins explain why the activity of censors was for long chiefly concerned with the printed word. Revealingly, this system is still in force in Communist countries today [1990].”
“The French author Nicolas Chorier contrived an even more ambitious ruse for his pansexual dialogues of Aloisia Sigea (1658(?)), which purported to be a translation into Latin by a Dutch author (Jan de Meurs) working from a Spanish original by a learned woman.” Entendeu? Uma tradução para o latim (língua culta) de um escrito erudito (mas vulgar) de uma espanhola, feito por um holandês, para circular na França!
“Many French books, unwelcome to throne and altar, were published in Geneva, in Amsterdam, and in Germany. With the coming of the French revolution, however, all restraints were off. Thus the large works which the Marquis de Sade had composed in prison were published, as well as two fascinating homosexual pamphlets, Les enfans de Sodome and Les petits bougres au manège. Although controls were eventually tightened again, Paris gained the reputation (which lasted until about 1960) among English and American travelers as the place where <dirty books> could be obtained.”
“Through his prudish editions of Shakespeare, Thomas Bowdler (1754-1825) gave rise to the term <bowdlerize>. At the ports, an efficient customs service kept all but a trickle of works deemed to be obscene from coming in. In the United States, the morals crusader Anthony Comstock (1844-1915) not only fought successfully for stringent new legislation, but as head of the New York Society for the Suppression of Vice [haha] he claimed responsibility for the destruction of 160 tons of literature and pictures. The restrictions on malleability proved to be particularly hard on publishers of homosexual material, and this problem was not overcome until the ONE, Inc. case in 1954. A landmark in freedom to read books in the United States was the 1931 Ulysses case. Shortly thereafter, however, Hollywood instituted a system of self-censorship known as the Hays Office. This device effectively prevented any direct representation of homosexual love on the silver screen for decades, the only exceptions being a very few foreign films shown at art houses. During this period book publishers practiced their own form of self-censorship by insisting that novels featuring homosexual characters must doom them to an unhappy end.
Only after World War II did the walls begin to come tumbling down in English-speaking countries. In Britain the publishers of Lady Chatterley’s Lover by D.H. Lawrence were acquitted after a spectacular trial in 1960. In America Grove Press had obtained a favorable court decision on the availability of Lady Chatterley in 1959; three years later the firm went on to publish Henry Miller’s Tropic of Cancer without difficulty. The travails of a book containing explicit homosexual passages, William Burroughs’ Naked Lunch, were more extended. In 1958 authorities at the University of Chicago refused to permit publication of excerpts in a campus literary review. This led to the founding of a new journal, largely to publish the Burroughs text; once this had been done, a lengthy court battle ensued. Only in 1964 was the way clear for the whole novel to be issued by Grove Press. (The book had been published in Paris in 1959.)
Subsequently, a series of United States Supreme Court decisions made censorship impractical, and for all intents and purposes it has ceased nationally, though local option is sometimes exercised. This cessation permitted the appearance and sale of a mass of sexually explicit
books, films, and magazines. The only restriction that is ubiquitously enforced is the ban on <kiddy porn>, photographs and films of children engaging in sexual acts. In an unlikely de facto alliance, two groups emerged at the end of the 1970s in America to reestablish some form of censorship: one consisting of fundamentalists and other religious conservatives; the other of feminist groups [haha].”
Michael Barry Goodman, Contemporary Literary Censorship: The Case of Burroughs’ Naked Lunch, Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow, 1981;
Rocco, Alcibiades The Schoolboy (1652) (diálogo êmulo de Platão apólogo da pederastia)
CERVANTES
“For 5 years he was a captive in Algiers, where he was on surprisingly good terms with a homosexual convert to Islam; he refers several times in his writings to the pederasty that flourished in the Ottoman empire – on his return from Algiers he was accused of unspecified filthy acts. His marriage was unhappy, and women in his works are treated distantly. Like Manuel Azaña, he put a very high value on freedom.
While Cervantes presented the male-female relationship as the theoretical ideal and goal for most people, the use of pairs of male friends is characteristic of his fiction, and questions of gender are often close to the surface. In his masterpiece Don Quixote (1605-15), which includes cross-dressing by both sexes, the middle-aged protagonist has never had, and has no interest in, sexual intercourse with a woman. A boy servant who appears fleetingly at the outset is replaced by the unhappily-married companion Sancho Panza. The two men come to love each other, although the love is not sexual.”
Verbete por Daniel Eisenberg
Louis Combet, Cervantes ou les incertitudes du désir, Lyon: Presses Universitaires, 1982 (review in MLN, 97 [1982], 422-27);
Rosa Rossi, Ascoltare Cervantes, Milan: Riuniti, 1987 (Spanish translation: Escuchar a Cervantes, Valladolid: Ámbito, 1988);
Luis Rosales, Cervantes y la libertad, 2ed., Madrid: Cultura Hispánica, 1985;
Ruth El Saffar, Cervantes and the Androgyne, Cervantes, III (1983);
______. Beyond Fiction: The Recovery of the Feminine in the Novels of Cervantes, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984.
CHINA
“The civilization of China emerged from pre-history during the first half of the 2nd millennium B.C. in the valley of the Huang-He (Yellow River), spreading gradually southwards. Over the centuries China has exercised extensive influence on Korea, Japan, and southeast Asia. Inasmuch as Chinese society has traditionally viewed male homosexuality and lesbianism as altogether different, their histories are separate and are consequently treated in sequence in this article.”
“During the latter part of the Zhou, homosexuality appears as a part of the sex lives of the rulers of many states of that era. Ancient records include homosexual relationships as unexceptional in nature and not needing justification or explanation. This tone of prosaic acceptance indicates that these authors considered homosexuality among the social elite to be fairly common and unremarkable. However, the political, ritual and social importance of the family unit made procreation a necessity. Bisexuality therefore became more accepted than exclusive homosexuality, a predominance continuing throughout Chinese history.
The Eastern Zhou produced several figures who became so associated with homosexuality that later generations invoked their names as symbols of homosexual love, much in the same way that Europeans looked to Ganymede, Socrates, and Hadrian. These famous men included Mizi Xia, who offered his royal lover a half-eaten peach, and Long Yang, who compared the fickle [volúvel] lover to a fisherman who tosses back a small fish when he catches a larger one. Rather than adopt scientific terminology, with associations of sexual pathology, Chinese litterateurs preferred the aesthetic appeal of these literary tropes [figures of speech].”
“One incident in the life of Dong Xian became a timeless metaphor for homosexuality. A tersely worded account [relato oral sucinto] relates how Emperor Ai [last Han] was sleeping with Dong Xian one afternoon when he was called to court. Rather than wake up his beloved, who was reclining across the emperor’s sleeve [manga, sobra de tecido], Ai took out a dagger and cut off the end of his garment. When courtiers inquired after the missing fabric, Emperor Ai told them what had happened. This example of love moved his courtiers to cut off the ends of their own sleeves in imitation, beginning a new fashion trend.”
“The Jin dynasty (265-420) poet Zhang Hanbian wrote a glowing tribute to the 15-year-old boy prostitute Zhou Xiaoshi. In it he presents the boy’s life as happy and care-free, <inclined toward extravagance and festiveness, gazing around at the leisurely and beautiful>. A later poet, the Liang dynasty (502-557) figure Liu Zun, tried to present a more balanced view in a poem entitled Many Blossoms. In this piece he shows the dangers and uncertainty associated with a boy prostitute’s life. His Zhou Xiaoshi
<knows both wounds and frivolity
Withholding words, ashamed of communicating.>
Although these poems take opposite perspectives on homosexual prostitution, the appearance of this theme as an inspiration for poetry points to the presence of a significant homosexual world complete with male prostitutes catering [sendo ofertados] to the wealthy.”
“The high profile of male prostitution led the Song rulers to take limited action against it. Many Confucian moralists objected to male prostitution because they saw the sexual passivity of a prostitute as extremely feminizing. In the early 12th century, a law was codified which declared that male prostitutes would receive 100 strokes of a bamboo rod and pay a fine of 50,000 cash. Considering the harsh legal penalties of the period, which included mutilation and death by slicing, this punishment was actually quite lenient. And it appears that the law was rarely if ever enforced, so it soon became a dead letter.”
“Legal intervention peaked in the Qing dynasty (1644-1911) when the Kang Xi Emperor (r. 1662-1723) took steps against the sexual procurement of young boys, homosexual rape, and even consensual homosexual acts.” “it seems that the traditional government laissez-faire attitude toward male sexuality prevented enforcement of the law against consensual homosexual acts.”
“A thirst for knowledge of homosexual history led to the compilation of the anonymous Ming collection Records of the Cut Sleeve (Duan xiu pian) which contains vignettes of homosexual encounters culled from nearly two millennia of sources. This anthology is the first history of Chinese homosexuality, perhaps the first comprehensive homosexual history in any culture, and still serves as our primary guide to China’s male homosexual past.”
“In Fujian province on the South China coast, a form of male marriage developed during the Ming. Two men were united, the older referred to as an <adoptive older brother> (qixiong) and the younger as <adoptive younger brother> (qidi). The younger qidi would move into the qixiong’s household, where he would be treated as a son-in-law by his husband’s parents. Throughout the marriage, which often lasted for 20 years, the qixiong was completely responsible for his younger husband’s upkeep. Wealthy qixiong even adopted young boys who were raised as sons by the couple. At the end of each marriage, which was usually terminated because of the familial responsibilities of procreation, the older husband paid the necessary price to acquire a suitable bride for his beloved qidi.” [!!!]
“The famous 17th century author Li Yu wrote several works featuring male homosexuality and lesbianism. The greatest Chinese work of prose fiction, Dream of the Red Chamber (Honglou meng), features a bisexual protagonist and many homosexual interludes. And the mid-19th century saw the creation of A Mirror Ranking Precious Flowers (Pinhua baojian), a literary masterpiece detailing the romances of male actors and their scholar patrons.”
“Within a few generations, China shifted from a relative tolerance of homosexuality to open hostility. The reasons for this change are complex and not yet completely understood. First, the creation of colloquial baihua literary language removed many potential readers from the difficult classical Chinese works which contained the native homosexual tradition. Also, the Chinese reformers early in the century began to see any divergence between their own society and that of the West as a sign of backwardness. This led to a restructuring of Chinese marriage and sexuality along more Western lines. The uncritical acceptance of Western science, which regarded homosexuality as pathological, added to the Chinese rejection of same-sex love. The end result is a contemporary China in which the native homosexual tradition has been virtually forgotten and homosexuality is ironically seen as a recent importation from the decadent West.
Communist China.In the People’s Republic of China, homosexuality is taken as a sign of bourgeois immorality and punished by <reeducation> in labor camps. Officially the incidence of homosexuality is quite low. Western psychologists, however, have noted that the official reporting of impotence is much higher in mainland China than in the West. It seems that many Chinese men, unfamiliar with homosexual role models, interpret their sexuality solely according to their attraction to women. Nevertheless, a small gay subculture has begun to develop in the major cities since the end of the Maoist era [?]. Fear of discovery and lack of privacy tend to limit the quality and duration of homosexual relationships. And for the vast majority of Chinese living in the conservative country-side, homosexual contacts are much more difficult to come by.” “With the 1997 return of Hong Kong to China approaching, British liberals have supported a last minute repeal of the sodomy law.”
“Traditionally, Chinese people have viewed male homosexuality and lesbianism as unrelated. Consequently, much of the information we have on male homosexuality in China does not apply to the female experience. Piecing together the Chinese lesbian past is frustrated by the relative lack of source material. Since literature and scholarship were usually written by men and for men, aspects of female sexuality unrelated to male concerns were almost always ignored.” “Sex manuals of the period Ming include instructions integrating lesbian acts with heterosexual intercourse as a way of varying the sex lives of men with multiple concubines.”
“Li Yu’s first play, Pitying the Fragrant Companion (Lianxiangban), describes a young married woman’s love for a younger unmarried woman. The married woman convinces her husband to take her talented beloved as a concubine. The 3 then live as a happy ménage-à-trois free from jealousy. A more conventional lesbian love affair is detailed in Dream of the Red Chamber, in which a former actress regularly offers incense to the memory of her deceased beloved.”
The most highly developed form of female relationship was the lesbian marriages formed by the exclusively female membership of Golden Orchid Associations. A lesbian couple within this group could choose to undergo a marriage ceremony in which one partner was designated <husband> and the other <wife>. After an exchange of ritual gifts, a wedding feast attended by female friends served to witness the marriage. These married lesbian couples could even adopt young girls, who in turn could inherit family property from the couple’s parents. This ritual was not uncommon in 19th-century Guangzhou province. Prior to this, the only other honorable way for a woman to remain unmarried was to enter a Buddhist nunnery.” “The existence of Golden Orchid Associations became possible only by the rise of a textile industry in south China which enabled women to become economically independent. The traditional social and economic attachment of women to the home has so far prevented the emergence in modem China of a lesbian community on even so limited a scale as that of male homosexuals.”
Lanling Xiaoxiao Sheng, Golden Lotus ou The Plum [Ameixa] in The Golden Vase (2013) (título original: Jin ping mei)(novela de costumes, considerada o “Lolita” oriental), s/ data precisa (~séc. XVI; ed. por Zhang Zhupo no século seguinte). trad. francesa: La merveilleuse histoire de Hsi Men avec ses six femmes (1), Fleur en fiole d’or (2);
Pai Hsien-yung, The Outsiders (Niezi) (inspirou um filme homônimo, de 1986)
CHRISTIANITY
“ORÍGENES” DO MAL II: “By about A.D. 200, the church had come to recognize the texts making up the New Testament as a single canon. After some hesitation, the Hebrew Bible, known to Christians as the Old Testament, was taken from Judaism and also accepted as divinely inspired. From this point onwards, Christian doctrines were elaborated by a group of intellectuals, known as the Fathers of the Church or the Patristic writers, beginning with such figures as Origen, Clement of Alexandria and Tertullian.” “Though they based their exegesis upon the Bible, they were inevitably influenced by philosophical and religious currents of their own time, especially Greek Stoicism and Neo-Platonism and by rival mystery cults such as Manichaeanism and Gnosticism.” “Still today there are differences on such sexually related topics as divorce, celibacy, and so forth between Roman Catholics and members of various eastern branches of Christianity which date from the foundations of Christianity, including Coptic, Nestorian, and various Orthodox Churches. In practice, most of these churches have been more tolerant of homosexuality than the Roman Catholic Church and its Protestant off-shoots.”
RESUMO DAS CONFISSÕES DE UM HOMEM POUCO SANTO
“St. Augustine (d. 430), one of the great scholars of the ancient world, had converted to the austere faith of Manichaeanism after receiving a classical education. It seemed to his mind more suited to his Neo-Platonic and Stoic ideals than the Christianity of his mother. In Manichaean belief, which drew heavily from Zoroastrianism, intercourse leading to procreation was particularly evil because it caused other souls to be imprisoned in bodies, thus continuing the cycle of good versus evil.
Augustine was a member of the Manichaean religion for some 11 years but never reached the stage of the Elect in part because of his inability to control his sexual appetites. He kept a mistress, fathered a child, and according to his own statement, struggled to overcome his lustful appetites everyday by praying: <Give me chastity, and continence, but do not give it yet>. Recognizing his own inability to give up sexual intercourse, Augustine finally arrived at the conclusion that the only way to control his venereal desire was through marriage. He expelled his mistress and his son from his house, became engaged to a young girl not yet of age for wedlock (probably under 12 years of age), and planned a marriage. Unable to abstain from sex, he turned to prostitutes, went through a religious crisis, and in the process became converted to Christianity.”
HA-HA: “All other sex was sinful including coitus within marriage not performed in the proper position (the female on her back and facing the male) and using the proper appendages and orifices (penis in vagina). St. Augustine’s views became the views of the western church centered in Rome.” “In general there was no extensive discussion of homosexuality by any of the early Church Fathers, and most of the references are incidental.”
“The Augustinian views were modified in the 13th century [o que houve nestes 7 séculos além de monges devassos e burros?] by St. Thomas Aquinas, who held that homosexual activities, though similar to other sins of lust, were more sinful because they were also sins against nature. The sins against nature in descending order were (I) masturbation, (2) intercourse in an unnatural position, (3) copulation with the same sex (homosexuality and lesbianism), and (4) sex with non-humans (bestiality).”
One of the key sources in the early medieval Church is the penitential literature. Originally penance had been a way of reconciling the sinner with God and had taken place through open confession. The earliest penitentials put sexual purity at a high premium, and failure to observe the sexual regulations was classified as equal to idolatry (reversion to paganism) and homicide. Ultimately public penance was replaced by private penance and confession which was regulated by the manuals or penitentials designed to guide those who were hearing them. Most of the early penitentials classified homosexual and lesbian activities as equivalent to fornication. Later ones classified such activities as equivalent to adultery although some writers distinguished between interfemoral intercourse and anal intercourse and between fellatio or oral-genital contacts. Anal intercourse was regarded as being the most serious sin.” “Sodomy came to be regarded as the most heinous of sexual offenses, even worse than incest, and as civil law began to take over from canon law, it could be punished as a capital crime.”
Antes só dormia, hoje sodomia.
Só dormia, ou será que prazer também? No lato sensucht
Calvin & Child Harolde: “Catholics denounced Calvin for his supposed pederasty, a charge that was completely unfounded.”
NADA COMO COMER O BRIOCO DUMA INDIAZINHA: “In 1730-31 the great Dutch persecution of sodomites occurred, and in the accompanying propaganda the old charges against Roman Catholicism were revived. In Catholic countries themselves, the dissolution of the Jesuit order in 1773 was preceded by accusations of sodomy.”
Graciano, A Harmony of Discordant Canons (1140)
St. Peter Damián (1007-1072), Liber Gomorrhianus
CHURCHES, GAY
“The emergence of Christian churches with predominantly gay and lesbian congregations, as well as interest groups within or allied to existing denominations, is a recent phenomenon, centered in the English-speaking world. There are records of homosexual monks, nuns, and priests, especially in the later Middle Ages and in early modern times, but no indication that they even thought of organizing on the basis of their sexual preference. Christian homosexuals drawn to particular parishes, where cliques [panelinhas] occasionally even became a visible segment of the congregation, would not openly avow this shift in the church’s character: they remained closeted gay Christians, so to speak.”
“Some maintain that Jesus – an unmarried man in a Jewish milieu where marriage and procreation were de rigueur even for the religious elite – had a passionate relationship with John, the beloved disciple. Liturgically and sociologically the UFMCC tends to be of a <low church> character, with notable exceptions in some congregations. The evangelical fundamentalist domination of the UFMCC may be regarded as a response to the homophobic vehemence of the mainstream fundamentalist churches, which drives gay Christians out of their fold with a vengeance and forces them into an external redoubt, in contrast to the relatively more tolerant atmosphere, hospitable to internal gay caucuses [panelinhas, partidos], of the more liberal churches.”
CICERO
“Roman politician, orator, and writer, who left behind a corpus of Latin prose (speeches, treatises, letters) that make him one of the great authors of classical antiquity. Unsuccessful in politics, he was overestimated as a philosopher by the Middle Ages and the Renaissance and underestimated in modern times, but was and is ranked as one of the greatest masters of Latin style. His career as an orator began in 81 B.C., and from the very beginning his speeches revealed his rhetorical gifts. His denunciation ofVerres, the proconsul who had plundered the province of Sicily, opened the way to his election as aedile, praetor, and then consul, but subsequently the intrigues of his enemies led to his banishment from Rome (58/57), followed by his triumphal return. In the civil war he took the side of Pompey and so failed again, but was pardoned by the victorious Caesar, after whose death he launched a rhetorical attack on Mark Antony. The formation of the triumvirate meant that Cicero was to be proscribed by his opponent and murdered by his henchmen.”
“In the last turbulent century of the Roman republic in which he lived, a contrast between the austere virtue of earlier times and the luxury and vice of the present had become commonplace. Also, as we know from the slightly later genre of satirical poetry, a taste for salacious gossip had taken root in the metropolis. In his orations Cicero remorselessly flays the homosexual acts of his enemies, contrasting homosexual love with the passion inspired by women which is <far more of natural inspiration>.”
“Something of the Roman antipathy to Greek paiderasteia transpires from Cicero’s condemnation of the nudity which the Greeks flaunted in their public baths and gymnasia, and from his assertion that the Greeks were inconsistent in their notion of friendship. He pointedly noted: <Why is it that no one falls in love with an ugly youth or a handsome old man?> Effeminacy and passive homosexuality are unnatural and blameworthy in a free man, though Cicero remained enough under the influence of Greek mores to express no negative judgment on the practice of keeping handsome young slaves as minions of their master.” “The Judaic condemnation of homosexuality per se had not yet reached Rome, but the
distinction that had existed in Hellenic law and custom between acts worthy and unworthy of a citizen was adopted and even heightened by the com[cu]bination of appeal to Roman civic virtue and his own rhetorical flair.”
SMEAR CAMPAIGN: “Cicero’s rhetoric thus had two sides: the attempt to discredit opponents by inflammatory imputations of homosexual conduct and of sexual immorality in general – a type of smear to be followed in political life down to modern times”
CIRCUMCISION
GENEALOGIA DA PROFILAXIA: “Male circumcision, or the cutting away of the foreskin [prepúcio] of the penis, has been practiced by numerous peoples from remotest antiquity as a religious custom, while to some modern homosexuals it has an aesthetic and erotic significance. It has been speculated that the custom originated somewhere in Africa where water was scarce and the ability to wash was limited. Thus the Western Semites (Israelites, Canaanites, Phoenicians, Arabs, Edomites, Syrians), who lived in an area where water was never really plentiful, also observed the custom, while the Eastem Semites (Assyrians and Babylonians), in an area where water was more abundant, did not circumcise. This is true also of the Greeks and other Aegean peoples who always lived near the water.”
“Jesus never mentioned circumcision, though the Jewish rite was (Luke 2:21) performed upon him on his 8th day as it was with all other males of his community of faith – hence the designation of the calendar in which the first day of the year is January 1 as <circumcision style>. In the early church the party of Paul of Tarsus which opposed circumcision was victorious, and uncircumcised Greeks and Romans poured into the new faith, so that to this day the majority of European men have retained their foreskins. With the coming of the faith of Islam, however, in the VII century the Middle East and North Africa became a stronghold of the practice of circumcision. Hindus and Buddhists avoid it, hence East Asians – and Amerindians – retain their foreskins.”
“In the late 20th century the trend is being reversed in America as more and more medical articles – and some books – have argued that the operation in most cases is needless.”
“There are even groups of men who have retained their foreskins (and others who admire them); these individuals with generous or pronounced <curtains> are in demand.”
Bud Berkeley & Joe Tiffenbach, Circumcision: Its Past, Its Present, and Its Future, San Francisco: Bud Berkeley, 1983-84;
Rosemary Romberg, Circumcision: The Painful Dilemma, South Hadley, MA: Bergin & Garvey, 1985;
Edward Wallerstein, Circumcision: An American Health Fallacy, New York: Springer Publishing Co., 1980.
CLASS
“When there are no children to raise there is more discretionary income, so that adopting a homosexual lifestyle provides a margin for class enhancement.” “An established gay man or lesbian may put resources which parents would use for raising the status of their children into helping a lover-protegé. The mentor may also provide private lessons in manners and business acumen.” “Curiously, some parents seem to tolerate same-sex alliances by their offspring more easily than those that cross class or racial lines. § Internalizing the folk belief that homosexuals are more <artistic>, some gay men cultivate musical, theatrical, and culinary tastes that are above their <station> – and above their income. Acquisition of these refined preferences, together with <corrected> speech patterns, hinders easy communication with former peers, though there are many factors that work for geographical and psychological distance between homosexuals, on the one hand, and their families and original peer groups, on the other. Given their relative freedom, some individuals may be inclined to experiment with <class bending>, [sinuosidade de classe] sometimes with paradoxical results.”
“There is class, and there is class fantasy.”
CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA
“Greek church father. Born in Athens, probably of pagan and peasant ancestry, he is not to be confused with Clement, bishop of Rome, author of the New Testament epistle. After his conversion, Clement of Alexandria traveled widely to study under Christians, finally under the learned Pantaenus in Alexandria. Of the early Fathers, he had the most thorough knowledge of Greek literature. He quoted Homer, Hesiod, the dramatists, and (most of all) Platonic and Stoic philosophers. Sometime before 200 he succeeded Pantaenus, whom he praised for his orthodoxy, as head of the catechetical school at Alexandria, but in 202 he had to flee the persecution unleashed by the emperor Septimius Severus and perhaps died in Asia Minor.”
“Although Clement’s christianity has been criticized as being too Hellenized, his serene hope and classical learning helped convert the upper classes. His pseudo-Platonic doctrine that homosexuality was particularly noxious because it was <against nature> served to combine that strand of classical philosophy with Hellenistic Jewish homophobia, most trenchantly exemplified by the Alexandrian philosopher Philo Judaeus (20 B.C.-A.D. 45), to justify persecution of sodomites. He thus preceded and stimulated the homophobia of the Christian emperors, from Constantine’s sons to Justinian, and of the two most influential Fathers, John Chrysostom and Augustine of Hippo.”
CLERGY, GAY
“that there is a psychological affinity between religious ministry and hemophilia”Edward Carpenter
“The patrician John XII (938-964) went so far as to model himself on the scandalous Roman emperor Heliogabalus, holding homosexual orgies in the papal palace – a practice imitated by Benedict IX (1021-ca. 1052).” “paradoxically the enforcement of celibacy on priests and even attempts to impose it on those in lesser orders increased the danger of homosexuality.”
“Friars, who unlike the monks were free to wander among the laity without much supervision, became notorious as seducers of boys as well as women, whose confessions they often heard to the disgruntlement [desabono] of parish priests. Many homosexual clergy, then as now, confessed to one another and were formally absolved. Indeed, the confessional at times became the locus of seduction.”
“Philip IV of France charged Boniface VIII not only with heresy, usury, and simony, but with sodomy and masturbation as well.”
“The Renaissance in Italy, with its revival of classical antiquity and love of art, saw a number of popes who were interested in their own sex. Among them were the anti-pope John XXIII (d. 1419), who began his career as a pirate. Entering the clergy he quickly acquired the reputation of an unblushing libertine. The humanist pope Pius II (1405-1464) watched boys run naked in a race at Pienza, noting a boy <with fair hair and a beautiful body, though disfigured with mud>. The vain Venetian Paul II (1417-1471) toyed with adopting the name Formosus. Affecting the most lavish costumes, he was attacked by his enemies as <Our Lady of Pity>. His successor, Sixtus IV (1414-1482), made his mark as an art patron, erecting the Sistine chapel. He also elevated to the cardinalate a number of handsome young men. Julius II (1443-1513), another art-loving pope, provoked such scandal that he was arraigned under various charges, including that of sodomy, but he managed to survive the attempt to depose him. His successor, the extravagant Medici Leo X (1475-1521), became embroiled in intrigues to advance favorite nephews, a hobby that strained the treasury to the utmost. Julius III (1487-1555), who had presided over the Council of Trent before his pontificate, was nonetheless sometimes seen at official functions with catamites [<coroinhas>], one of whom he made a cardinal.”
“The anticlerical literature of the last decades of that century delighted in exposing cases in which a clergyman had committed a sexual offense, to the point where in 1911 the Pope had to issue the motu proprio decree Quamvis diligenter forbidding the Catholic laity to bring charges against the clergy before secular courts. This step unilaterally abolished the principle of the equality of all citizens before the law established by the French Revolution, reinstating the <benefit of clergy> of the Middle Ages. The anticlerical literature of that period still needs study for the light that it can shed on the homosexual subculture of the clerical milieux.”
The Bible for Believers and Unbelievers (1922)(clássico anticlerical russo)
The Rule of St. Benedict, chapter 22.
Transcrição completa do capítulo 22 das regras de São Benedito (regulamento dos monges na alta idade média):
“CHAPTER XXII: HOW THE MONKS ARE TO SLEEP
Let them sleep singly in separate beds. Let them receive bedding suitable to their manner of life, at the discretion of the abbot. If it can be done, let all sleep in one room: but if their number does not allow of this, let them repose by tens or by twenties with their seniors who have charge of them. Let a candle burn continually in the dormitory until morning. Let them sleep clothed and girded with girdles or cords, but let them not have knives at their sides while they sleep, lest by chance while dreaming they wound a sleeper; and let them be monks always ready; and upon the signal being given let them rise without delay and hasten one after the other, yet with all gravity and decorum, to be ready in good time for the Work of God. Let not the younger brethren have their beds by themselves, but among those of the seniors: and let them be allowed gently to encourage one another as they rise for the Work of God, because some may feel drowsy and listless.”
COCTEAU, JEAN
The Infernal Machine (peça)
COLETTE
“A happy childhood is a bad preparation for contact with human beings.”
COLOR SYMBOLISM
“A current Russian term for a gay man is golubchik, from goluboy, <blue>, evidently through association with the <blue blood> of the aristocracy of the Old Régime.”
“According to Havelock Ellis, one could not safely walk down the streets of late 19th century New York wearing a red tie without being accosted, since this garment was then the universal mark of the male prostitute.” “Because of the <scarlet woman>, the great Whore of Babylon of the book of Revelation, that color has acquired a strong association with prostitution and adultery”
“In American culture the word lavender – a blend of red and blue (as in <lavender lover>, The Lavender Lexicon, etc.) – almost speaks for itself.”
“The mid-1980s saw public display at rallies and marches of a rainbow Gay Pride Flag, consisting of six parallel stripes ranging from bright red to deep purple. The juxtaposition of colors stands for the diversity of the gay/lesbian community with regard to ethnicity, gender, and class – perhaps also connoting, in the minds of some, the coalition politics of the Rainbow Alliance headed by Jesse Jackson.”
COMICS
“The first true comic strips were introduced in 1897 as a circulation-building device in the Sunday supplements of the Hearst newspapers. The now-familiar pulp comic book was a creation of the Depression: the first commercial example is Famous Funnies of 1934. Although these strips generally affirmed middle-class values, and certainly contained not the slightest overt indication of sex, they were regularly denounced by pundits as a pernicious influence on the young.”
“Batman, appearing in 1939, featured the adventures of a playboy detective and his teenage ward, Robin. Although the relationship is portrayed as a simple mentor-protegé one, some teenage male readers were able to project something stronger into it. This aspect was certainly flirted with in the campy television off-shoot beginning in 1966, though this series reflects a much changed cultural climate. In 1941 there appeared Wonder-woman, featuring an Amazon with special powers living on an all-woman island. This strip – contrary to the expressed wishes of its creators – served as a focus for lesbian aspirations. In the 1970s it was rediscovered by the women’s movement as a proto-feminist statement.
In the late 1940s Blade drew several illustrated stories, including The Barn and Truck Hiker, that can be considered predecessors of the gay comics. Circulated underground, they have been officially published only in recent years. Somewhat later the wordless strips of supermacho types created by Tom of Finland began to circulate in Europe.
It was the American counterculture of the 1960s, however, which first made possible the exploration of taboo subjects in a context of crumbling censorship restrictions. In 1964 a Philadelphia gay monthly, Drum, began serializing Harry Chess by Al Shapiro (A. Jay). Modeled on a popular television series, Harry Chess was both macho and campy, though explicit sex scenes were veiled. In the 1970s no-holds-barred examples appeared drawn by such artists as Bill Ward, Sean, and Stephen (Meatman).”
COMING OUT
“A few gays and lesbians report no memory of a coming out process; they always considered themselves homosexual and were never <in the closet>. Others have reported a sudden revelation of their own homosexuality which does not fit into any theory of stages but has brought them from apparently heterosexual to comfortably homosexual virtually overnight.”
“The self-help literature for gay and lesbian youth is quite explicit in designating parents as the crucial factor in the youth’s coming out process. Those who do not come out to their family, according to G.B. MacDonald, become <half-members of the family unit: afraid and alienated, unable ever to be totally open and spontaneous, to trust or be trusted… This sad stunting of human potential breeds stress for gay people and their families alike – stress characterized by secrecy, ignorance, helplessness, and distance.> The scientific literature, however, has largely ignored the role of parents, having centered on gay and lesbian adults.”
CONTEST LITERATURE
Diálogos.
Achilles Tatius, Leucippe and Clitophon
Pseudo-Lucian, Affairs of the Heart
CONTRARY SEXUAL FEELING
“the linguistic remnant of the first, uncertain psychiatric attempt to grapple with the problem of homosexuality.”
COUNTERCULTURE
“Apparently the term counterculture is an adaptation of the slightly earlier <adversary culture>, an expression coined by the literary critic Lionel Trilling (1905-1975). In many respects the counterculture constituted a mass diffusion – fostered by diligent media exploitation – of the prefigurative beat/hippie phenomenon. As American involvement in the Vietnam War increased, in the wake of opposition to it the counterculture shifted from the gentle <flower-child> phase to a more aggressive posture, making common cause with the New Left, which was not, like the radicalism of the 30s, forced by economic crisis to focus on issues of unemployment and poverty. Of course radical political leaders were accustomed to decry the self-indulgence of the hippies, but their followers, as often as not, readily succumbed to the lure of psychedelic drugs and the happy times of group togetherness accompanied by ever present rock music.”
MESSIANISMO EPIDÊMICO: “The counterculture shamelessly embraced ageism: <Don’t trust anyone over thirty.> Observing this precept cut young people off from the accumulated experience and wisdom of sympathetic elders. Moreover, it meant that the adherents of the movement themselves quickly became back numbers as they crossed over the 30-year line. In regard to gay adherents, the distrust of older people tended to reinforce the ageism already present in their own subculture. To be sure, the full force of such problematic effects has become evident only in retrospect. Although outsiders, and some insiders as well, exaggerated the fusion of the counterculture and the New Left, still the convergence of massive cultural innovation with hopes for fundamental political change gave the young generation a heady sense of imminent revolution.”
“The psychiatrist Thomas Szasz and others correctly perceived the link between the campaign to decriminalize marijuana and the efforts to reform sex laws.” “many assumed that homosexuals were essentially counterculturist, leftist, and opposed root and branch to the established order. Subsequent observation has shown, not surprisingly perhaps, that a majority of gay men and lesbians were (and are) liberal-reformist and even conservative, rather than revolutionary in then-overall political and social outlook.”
CROWLEY, ALEISTER
“After the turn of the century Crowley’s public career began, and he was regularly attacked in the press as <The Great Beast> and <The Wickedest Man in the World>.”
Raulseixismo: <There is no law beyond Do what thou wilt.>
“In a 1910 memoir Aleister Crowley proclaimed, <I shall fight openly for that which no Englishman dare defend, even in secret – sodomy! At school I was taught to admire Plato and Aristotle, who recommend sodomy to youths – I am not so rebellious as to oppose their dictum; and in truth there seems to be no better way to avoid the contamination of woman and the morose pleasures of solitary vice.>”
“he advanced beyond the grade of Magus to the supreme status of Ipsissimus.” E o Quico?
“Scarcely known today outside occult circles, Crowley is an extravagant instance of the concern with heterodox religion that has flourished among some male homosexuals who could find no peace within established Christianity, and more recently among female adherents of <the craft>. Through his voluminous writings Crowley foreshadowed the emergence of the <Age of Aquarius>.”
Israel Regardie, The Eye in the Triangle: An Interpretation of Aleister Crowley, St. Paul: Llewellen Publications, 1970.
CRUISING
Nicole Ariana, How to Pick up Men, New York: Bantam, 1972;
Mark Freedman & Harvey Mayes, Loving Man, New York: Hark, 1976, chapter 2;
John A. Lee, Getting Sex, Toronto: General, 1978 [Tinder on paper for human beings as archaic as those from a century ago];
Publius Ovid, Art of Love [~1A.D., obra seminal do “flerte” e “sondagens de sexo casual”, homo e heteronormativas!]
CUBA
“The largest island of the Antilles chain, home to 10 million Spanish-speaking people” Para 2017, o censo ainda não aponta população superior a 11.5 milhões.
“The British, French, and Dutch seized islands from the Spanish or colonized vacant ones as naval bases or sugar plantations; like the pirates they seldom brought women along. All 3 European powers were involved in the notorious triangular trade, shipping molasses or rum to Europe, guns and trinkets from there to Africa, and slaves back to the West Indies.”
“Cuba began to excel in sugar production after 1762. Havana became a glittering metropolis, rivaling New York and Rio de Janeiro, by 1800. The slave population, including huge numbers of males imported for work in the cane fields or molasses manufacturing, grew from fewer than 40,000 in 1770 to over 430,000 seventy years later. The census of 1841 reported that more than half the population was non-white (black and mixed blood) and that 43% were slaves. Males outnumbered females by 2 to 1 in the center and west and were just equal in the east. Other islands in the Caribbean had even greater sexual imbalances. Documentation for the homosexuality that must have abounded is scarce but the earlier prevalence can be assumed from attitudes and customs that still survive.”
“With Spain’s adoption of the Napoleonic Code in 1889, homosexuality was decriminalized 3 years after the abolition of slavery.”
“During World War I, Europe was closed to North Americans and Cuba, especially Havana, became a resort for the more adventurous. Prosperity increased with a rise in commodity prices. Also, the Prohibition in the United States after 1920 left Cuba as an oasis where liquor still flowed freely. Casino gambling and prostitution were also legal. A favorite port of call of cruise ships [pun intended!], Havana flourished as a mecca for pleasure-seekers.”
“The post-war collapse of commodity prices was to some extent offset by tourism. Everything was for sale in Havana under the dictator Fulgencio Batista, whose 1952 coup ousted an outwardly democratic but venal and nepotistic predecessor.
Old Havana had gay bars. Moral laxity, characteristic of the slave-rooted Caribbean economy, the Napoleonic Code, and the weakness of the Catholic Church (which was mainly Spanish, urban and upper class) produced an environment where gays were only mildly persecuted and could buy protection from corrupt officials. Drugs, especially marijuana, which flourished throughout the Caribbean, were available in Cuba long before they won popularity in the United States.”
“Exploiting popular revulsion against continuing political corruption as well as resentment of the diminishing but still important American domination, Fidel Castro led an ill-assorted group of liberals, patriots, and Marxists, including some gays, to victory over Batista in 1959. Only after he came to power did the United States realize that Castro was an avowed Communist. The American Central Intelligence Agency then tried and failed to assassinate him. His triumph was sealed by the missile crisis of 1962 when Khrushchev agreed to withdraw the missiles in return for Kennedy’s promise never to try to invade Cuba.”
“Soviet hostility toward homosexuality since 1934, when Stalin restored the penal laws against male homosexuals, combined with traditional Latin American machismo and Catholic homophobia, made the existence of Cuban homosexuals wretched and oppressive. To prevent their <contamination> of youth, thousands of gays in the 1960s were placed in work camps known as Military Units to Increase Production (UMAP). Although the camps were abolished by the end of the decade, other forms of discrimination continued. Article 359 of the Cuban penal code prohibits public homosexuality. Violations are punished with a minimum of 5 and a maximum of 20 years. Parents must discourage their children from homosexuality or report their failure to officials as Articles 355-58 mandate. Articles 76-94 punish with 4 years imprisonment sexual deviation regarded by the government as contrary to the spirit of Socialism.”
“The gifted playwright and fiction writer Virgilio Piñera (1912-1967) returned from Argentina in 1957 and after Castro’s triumph worked for several of the newspapers of the regime. On October 11, 1961, he was arrested and jailed for homosexuality. Che Guevara personally denounced him.”
Allen Young, Gays under the Cuban Revolution
DANDYISM
“The dandy has been since antiquity the man who prides himself on being the incarnation of elegance and of male fashion. The word itself stems from the Romantic period in the 19th century, when the character type reached its apogee; England and France were the principal countries in which it flourished. Charles Baudelaire (1821-1867) was one of the first to perceive that the type was not limited to the age just preceding his own, but had emerged across the centuries in some celebrated historical figures. Jules Barbey d’Aurevilly (1808-1889) wrote an Essay on Dandyism and George Brummel (1845), dealing with Beau Brummell (1778-1840), the most famous English representative of the dandy in the London of George IV.
History of the Type. Ancient Greece saw two classical specimens of the dandy: Agathon and Alcibiades. In Plato’s Symposium Agathon is a poet and tragedian, not merely handsome, but obsessed with the most trivial details of his wardrobe. Aristophanes shows him using a razor to keep his cheeks as smooth and glistening as marble, wearing sumptuous clothing in the latest Ionian fashion. Later in the same dialogue Alcibiades also enters the stage, the most dazzling figure of the jeunesse dorée of Athens, richer and more influential than Agathon, and never sparing any expenditure that would enhance his renown.”
“Another aesthete of this era, Oscar Wilde, affected a particularly striking costume when he made a lecture tour of the United States, capitalizing on a character featured in the Gilbert and Sullivan opera Patience (1881).”
“Rationale. The relation of the dandy to male homosexuality is complicated. As a rule the homosexual – more than the male who is attracted to women – feels the need to distinguish his person in some way, is more conscious of the world of male fashion and more likely to be narcissistically preoccupied with his image. Naturally not all the dandies of the past were homosexual or bisexual, and an element of leisure class self-demarcation and snobbery enters into the picture. Since it is usually the male of the species whom nature makes physically more noteworthy, the male-female antithesis in style of dress that has prevailed in Western culture since the French Revolution reverses the immemorial state of affairs. The notion that only a woman may be preoccupied with her wardrobe and that a man should dress simply and even unobtrusively is of recent date.”
DANTE ALIGHIERI
“As a youth he had a profound spiritual experience in an encounter with the young Beatrice Portinari; after her death he submerged himself in the study of philosophy and poetry. In 1302 Dante was banished from Florence, pursuing his literary career in various other cities of Italy.”
“The presence in both the Inferno and the Purgatorio of groups of <sodomites> has given rise to a series of debates over the centuries. These passages must be interpreted in the larger context of the great poem’s situations and personnel.” “The sodomites of the Inferno (cantos 15 and 16) are seen running under a rain of fire, condemned never to stop if they wish to avoid the fate of being nailed to the ground for a hundred years with no chance of shielding themselves against the flames. Having recognized Dante, Brunetto Latini (ca. 1212-1294) called him to speak with him, voicing an important prophecy of Dante’s future. In describing his fellow sufferers, Latini mentioned a number of famous intellectuals, politicians, and soldiers.
In the Purgatorio (canto 26) the sodomites appear in a different context – together with lustful heterosexuals. The two categories travel in opposite directions, yelling out the reason for their punishment.
How can one account for the striking deference and sympathy that Dante shows for the sodomites? This matter began to puzzle commentators only a few years after the poet’s death.”
“Dante’s education took place in the 13th century when Italy was beginning to change its attitudes toward homosexual behavior. Conduct which had been a transgression condemned by religion but viewed with indulgence by everyday morality assumed increasing seriousness in the eyes of the laity. For Dante it was still possible – as it had commonly been through the first half of the 13th century – to separate human and divine judgment with respect to sodomy.”
IDADE DAS LUZES E O BURACO ESCURO: “For Dante’s commentators sodomy was a sin of such gravity that it was inconceivable for them to treat with respect men seared with such <infamy>.”
“That Dante had spoken of Brunetto Latini and the sodomites with too much sympathy because he too shared their feelings was the conclusion of one anonymous commentator of the 14th century. Another wild suggestion is that the shameless Latini had made an attempt on Dante’s own virtue, and that hence Dante’s gentle words are in reality sarcasm that must be understood <in the opposite sense> (Guiniforto dei Bargigi; 1406-ca. 1460). Then, foreshadowing a thesis that would be favored by medical opinion in the 12th century, it was suggested that there were two types of sodomites, those by <choice> and those who are such by <necessity>.”
“The debate on Dante’s motives has continued until our own day. In 1950Andre Pezard devoted a whole book, Dante sous la pluie de feu, to an effort to show that the sin for which Brunetto and his companions were being punished was sodomy not in the usual sense, but in an allegorical one: sodomie spirituelle, which in Brunetto’s case meant having used the French language as a medium for one of his works.”
“The authoritative Encyclopedia Dantesca has sought to bring the conflict to an end, taking adequate account of Dante’s indulgent judgment as the correct key for solving the supposed <enigma> of the band of sodomites. As regards the reason for Brunetto Latini’s presence among the sodomites, Avalle D’Arco’s recent confirmation of the attribution to him of a long love poem directed to a man, S’eo son distretto inamoramente, shows that it was probably on the basis of facts that were publicly known in Dante’s time that he was consigned to Hell.” Aposto o cu que você já deu o cu.
DICKINSON, EMILY (1830-1886)
“American poet. After brief periods at Amherst Academy and Holyoke Female Seminary, she settled into an outwardly uneventful life keeping house for her family. Dickinson never married. The real events in her life are her writings, which have assumed classic status in American literature.”
“These homoerotic poems are never joyous, but that is to be expected in a society where heterosexual marriage was virtually believed inevitable and there was little possibility of two unrelated women establishing a life together if they were not wealthy through independent inheritance.”
DIONYSUS
“Greek god associated with wine and emotional exuberance. Although the name occurs in linear B tablets [?] from the end of the second millennium B.C., his figure absorbed additional elements from Thrace and the East in the following centuries. Dionysus, called Bacchus in Latin, was the son of Zeus and a mortal, Semele. When his mother unwisely besought Zeus to reveal himself in his true form, she was incinerated, but the embryo of her son escaped destruction. Zeus then inserted it into his own thigh and carried the child to term. This quality of being <twice born>, once from a woman and once from a man, points to the ambiguity of the god, who though male had effeminate traits. In literary and artistic representations, he sometimes served as a vehicle for questioning sex roles, otherwise strongly polarized in ancient Greece.
According to the late-antique writer Nonnus, Dionysus fell in love with a Phrygian boy, Ampelos, who became his inseparable companion. When the boy was killed in a bull-riding accident, the grief-stricken Dionysus turned him into a vine. As a result, the practices of vine cultivating and grape harvesting, of wine making and drinking, commemorate this deeply felt pederastic relationship: in honoring the vine (ampelos in Greek), one honors the god through his beloved.
In historic times Dionysus attracted a cult following consisting largely of women, the Bacchae or maenads. During the ritual followers abandoned their houses and work to roam about in the mountains, hair and clothing in disarray, and liberally imbibing wine, normally forbidden to women. At the height of their ecstasy they would seize upon an animal or even a child, tear it to pieces, and devour the uncooked flesh, by ingesting which they sought to incorporate the god and his powers within themselves. From a sociological point of view, the Bacchic cult is a <religion of the oppressed>, affording an ecstatic relief to women, whose status was low. Occurring only once during the year, or once every two years, these Dionysiac rites were bracketed off from the normal life of the Greek polis, suggesting comparison with such later European customs as the feast of fools, the carnival, the charivari, and mardi gras.
The maenads assume a major role in Euripides’ tragedy, The Bacchae (406 BC). Accompanied by his female followers, Dionysus appears in Thebes as a missionary. Unwisely, King Pentheus insults and arrests the divine visitor; after he has been rendered mad and humiliated, the transgressor is dismembered by the maenads. Interpretations of the play differ: a warning of the consequences of emotional excess versus a reaffirmation of the enduring presence of humanity’s irrational side. The subject probably attracted Euripides as a phenomenon of individual and group psychology in its own right, but it is unlikely that he intended it as a forecast of modern gay liberation in the <faery spirituality> mode, as Arthur Evans has argued. Inasmuch as the sexuality of The Bacchae was not pederastic, the Greek audience would not have seen the play as homosexual (a concept foreign to their mentality), but rather as challenging gender-role assumptions about men and women, whatever their sexual orientation. That the parts of the maenads were taken by men was not exceptional: women never appeared on the Greek stage.
Bacchanalian rites were introduced into Rome during the Republic. Men joined women in the frenzied gatherings, and (according to the historian Livy) there was more debauchery among the men with each other than with the women. Apart from their orgiastic aspects, the rites caused concern because they crossed class lines, welcoming citizens, freed men and slaves alike. Condemned as a subversive foreign import, the Senate suppressed the Bacchanalia in 186 BC, but they evidently were soon revived. Roman sarcophagi of the 2nd and 3rd century of our era show Bacchic scenes, projecting hopes for an afterlife spent in Dionysic bliss. In its last phases the cult of Dionysus emerged as an other-worldly mystery religion, showing affinities with Mithraism, the religion of Isis, and Christianity. Meeting now behind closed doors, members of the sect recognized one another by passwords and signs.
Although the early Christians regarded all pagan worship as demonic, they were not averse to purloining the Bacchic wine harvest imagery for their own sarcophagi and mosaics. Some Bacchic reminiscences recur in drinking songs of medieval goliardic poets, notably the Carmina Burana.”
“At the end of the 16th century the flamboyant bisexual painter Caravaggio created a notably provocative image of Bacchus-Dionysus (Florence, Uffizi Gallery).” Veja pintura no verbete do pintor mais acima.
“The most influential latter-day evocation of the god occurs in The Birth of Tragedy (1872) of Friedrich Nietzsche, who exalted the category of the Dionysiac as an antidote for excessive rationality in the interpretation of ancient Greece and, by implication, in modern life as well.
Nietzsche’s ideas were modernized and correlated with anthropology and psychoanalysis by the classical scholar E.R. Dodds, who in turn influenced the poet W.H. Auden. Together with his lover, Chester Kallman, Auden turned Euripides’ play into an opera libretto entitled The Bassarids.”
Karl Kerenyi, Dionysus: Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life, London: Routledge, 1976.
DREAMS
“When a dream has homosexual content, the hermeneutic process is complicated by the ethical assumptions of the dreamer and the interpreter, which reflect the attitudes of society toward same-sex experience.
To understand their dream experiences human beings have formulated a lore to which the ancients gave the name oneirocritical. Because the ancient world accepted homosexual interest and activity as part of human sexuality, the dream interpreters of the eastern Mediterranean cultures could calmly explain the homoerotic episodes in dreams in terms of their overall system of signs and meanings and without anxiety. Such was the work of Artemidorus of Daldis (middle of the 2nd century), which alludes to pédérastie and homosexual dream sequences and assigns them a specific, often prophetic meaning. Not so the Christian Middle Ages; the literature of dreams became exclusively heterosexual because the taboo with which theology had tainted sexual attraction to one’s own sex imposed a censorship that is only now being lifted.”
DRUGS
“It should be noted that there has never been a country or society in which unrestricted use of all psychoactive drugs has been permitted over any period of time.”
“In some users hallucinogens cause terrifying experiences; psychological problems can be exacerbated, and brain damage caused. The action of stimulants is often followed by a compensatory negative experience through which the body restores its equilibrium.”
“Society can tolerate drug use if it is encapsulated within an artistic, recreational, religious, or therapeutic context; while some are able to so control their usagé, for many that is a daunting or impossible condition, at least in our present culture”
“education is more effective than prohibition. Exaggeration of drugs’ harmful effects reduces respect for law, overwhelms the courts and prisons, inhibits research on any therapeutic use of drugs, makes drugs of controlled strength and purity unavailable, gives drugs the glamour of the forbidden, and encourages progression to ever more dangerous yet legally equal substances. As with alcohol during America’s Prohibition (1920-33), the supply of illegal drugs has become a very profitable industry, and not a passive or benign one. Foreigners who supply drugs sometimes justify their actions to themselves and their countrymen as a means of striking back at the political and economic power of the United States.”
“during the 1960s, there were a considerable number of reports of people becoming aware of homoeroticism for the first time while under the influence of LSD especially. Drugs have also been used by musicians, artists, and writers who claim that the substances help them create, although this claim is controversial, perhaps because if substantiated it would be a powerful argument for drug use.”
“The use of hashish (cannabis), eaten in sweets rather than smoked, is found in the Bible (Song of Songs 5:1; I Samuel 14:25-45), and there is evidence of psychic use of hemp (marijuana), from which hashish is made, from pre-historic times. Herodotus, for example, reports its popularity among the Scythians. However, widespread use of hashish begins in Islam in the 12th and 13th centuries. While the Koran prohibited wine, which because of distribution costs was somewhat more expensive than today, it was silent on hashish, which was also much less expensive. There was debate about whether the Koran’s silence was to be taken as approval, or whether prohibition was to be inferred from the treatment of wine; still, as long as it remained a minority indulgence it was tolerated, as wine usually was. Hashish users became a subculture; in particular it is linked to the mystical Sufis, who made a cult and ritual of its use. However, almost every Islamic poet from the 13th to the 16th centuries produced at least some playful poems on hashish, although wine poetry is much more abundant.”
“Hashish was thought to cause effeminacy, a preference for the passive sexual role, and a loss of interest in sex. However, it was also prized as the drug of scholars and lovers of young men, and an aid in seduction of the latter. Turkish soldiers frequently ate hashish together before going into battle.
Coffee was introduced to Europe in the 17th century from the Turkish empire. Both within Islam and in Europe coffee was at first a similarly controversial drug, subject to occasional legal restriction or suppression. Its use in coffee-houses, later cafés, was typical of intellectuals and dissidents.”
“The first half of the 20th century was characterized by a wave of reaction against drugs and the establishment of legal controls throughout Westem Europe and North America. However, the tensions of the 1960s, against a backdrop of the Holocaust and the invention and use of the atomic bomb, brought on a new wave of drug use. The hedonistic use of cannabis increased greatly; its enthusiasts promoted it as an aid to sensual and sexual enjoyment. The Beat generation, especially William Burroughs and Allen Ginsberg, had already turned to potent psychedelics as a means of self-improvement; they became part of the short-lived counterculture of the late 1960s. The discovery of psychedelics was in part due to progress in anthropology and archeology. The use by native peoples of mescaline (peyote), psilocybin (mushrooms), and other psychedelics became known, and the possible role of such substances in visions and oracles of the ancient Mediterranean world was proposed by scholars. The hallucinogenic properties of the most potent psychedelic yet known, lysergic acid diethylamine-25 (LSD), were discovered in 1943” “until it became too controversial, it was manufactured by a pharmaceutical company for research in psychotherapeutic treatment.”
“The gay bar remains the only gay institution in many American communities, as it was almost everywhere until the 1970s.”
“Poppers are a vasodilator of transitory effect, and cause a <high> from a drop in blood pressure; users say that the intensity and/or duration of orgasm is increased, that muscles (such as throat and anal sphincters) and gag reflexes are relaxed, and that feelings of increased union or <melting> with the sex partner result. Many users report that continued use (a single inhalation produces effects only for a few minutes) inhibits erections, while other users seem unaffected. Likewise, some users say the poppers encourage passivity and complete relaxation, while others report no such effect. Headaches and dizziness are sometimes reported as side effects.” “In the early 1980s poppers were accused of being a co-factor in the development of AIDS, and they were made illegal in some areas, although the accusation remains unproven.”
EFFEMINACY, HISTORICAL SEMANTICS OF
“In reading older texts it is important to bear these differences in mind, for the term effeminate can be used slightingly of a womanizer [mulherengo] as well as of a <womanish> man.
The ancient Greeks and Romans sharply differentiated the active male homosexual, the paiderastes (in the New Testament arsenokoites, literally <man-layer>), from the passive partner, the cinaedus or pathicus (New Testament Greek malakos; Hebrew, rakha). The Greeks also sometimes used the term androgynos, <man-woman>, to stigmatize the passive homosexual. Beginning with the Old Attic comedies of Aristophanes, the passive is a stock figure of derision and contempt, the active partner far less so. Because of the military ideals on which ancient societies were founded, passivity and softness in the male were equated with cowardice and want of virility. A seeming exception is the god Dionysus – whose effeminate characteristics are, however, probably an import from the non-Greek East.
In ancient Rome the terms mollis (soft) and effeminatus acquired special connotations of decadence and enervating luxury. By contrast the word virtus meant manliness. The Roman satirists took sardonic delight in flagellating the vices of luxury that were rampant among the upper classes of a nation that, once rude and war-like, had succumbed to the temptations that followed its successful conquest and plunder of the entire ancient world. The classical notion of effeminacy as the result of luxury, idleness, and pampered self-indulgence is thus far removed from the claim of some gay liberationists today to kinship with the exploited and down-trodden.”
“The old Icelandic literature stemming from medieval Scandinavia documents the condemnation of the argr, the cowardly, unwar-like effeminate (compare Modern German arg, <bad>). The Latin term mollities (softness) entered early Christian and medieval writings, but often with reference to masturbation. It may be that the 18th-century English term molly for an effeminate homosexual is a reminiscence of Latin mollis.”
“In the 16th century the French monarch Henri III assembled an entourage of favorites whose name mignon connotes effeminacy and delicacy. In French also the original meaning of bardache was the passive partner of the active bougre. English writings of the 17th and 18th century frequently denounced foppery [dandismo], sometimes homosexual but more often heterosexual.”
“Restoration times also witnessed the popularity of the self-referencing habit of male homosexuals adopting women’s names: Mary, Mary-Anne, Molly, Nance or Nancy, and Nelly. The habit occurs in other languages as well – Janet in Flemish; Checca (from Francesca) in Italian; Maricón (from Maria) in Spanish; and Adelaida in Portuguese.”
“19th-century English witnessed a semantic shift of a number of terms originally applied to women to provide opprobrious designations of male homosexuals. Thus gay had the meaning of a loose woman, prostitute; faggot, a slatternly woman –, and queen (or quean), a trollop. Even today the popular mind tends to the view that gay men seek to imitate women, or even become women –, the considerable number of unstereotypical, masculine homosexuals are not taken into account.”
“Termagant and virago, though pejorative, do not suggest variance of sexual orientation. The girl who is a tomboy has always been treated more indulgently than the boy who is a sissy.”
“Men who cross-dress as women are of two kinds. Some go to great lengths to make the simulation credible, an effort that may be a prelude to transsexualism. In other instances the simulation is imperfect, a kind of send-up. Although some feminists have interpreted such cross-dressing exercises as mockery of women, it is more likely that they signify a questioning of gender categories. In any event, transvestism is not normally held to lie within the province of effeminacy, which is thought to be the adjunction of feminine traits in a person otherwise fully recognizable as masculine.”
Hans Herter, Reallexikon fur Antike und Christentum, 4 (1959).
EGYPT
“Traditionally the pharaohs married their half-sisters, a custom that other peoples considered curious. Self-confident in their cherished habits and customs, the Egyptians nonetheless cherished a distinct sense of privacy, which restricted discussion of erotic themes in the documents that have come down to modern times. Most of our evidence stems from temples and tombs, where a full record of everyday life could scarcely be expected. Unfortunately, Egypt had no law codes comparable to those known from ancient Mesopotamia.”
“The realm of mythology provides several instances of homosexual behavior. In order to subordinate him, the god Seth attempted to sodomize his brother Horus, but the latter foiled him, and tricked Seth into ingesting some of his (Horus’s) own semen. Seth then became pregnant. In another myth the ithyphallic god Min anally assaulted an enemy, who later gave birth to the god Thoth. Both these stories present involuntary receptive homosexuality as a humiliation, but the act itself is not condemned; in the latter incident the god of wisdom is born as a result. (In another myth the high god engenders offspring parthenogenetically by masturbation.) While it is sometimes claimed that the ancient Egyptians were accustomed to sodomize enemies after their defeat on the battlefield, the evidence is equivocal.”
“In what is surely history’s first homosexual short story, King Pepy II Neferkare (2355-2261) makes nocturnal visits to have sex with his general Sisinne. This episode is significant as an instance of androphilia – sex between two adult men – rather than the pederasty that was dominant in the ancient world. From a slightly earlier period comes the Tomb of the Two Brothers at Thebes, which the excavators have explained as the joint sepulcher of two men, Niankhnum and Khnumhotep, who were lovers. Bas reliefs on the tomb walls show the owners embracing affectionately.”
“Queen Hatshepsut (reigned 1503-1482 BC) adopted male dress and even wore a false beard; these male attributes probably stem from her decision to reign alone, rather than from lesbianism.
A figure of particular interest is the pharaoh Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV; reigned ca. 1372-1354 BC), who was a religious and artistic reformer. Although this king begat several daughters with his wife, the famous Nefertiti, in art he is often shown as eunuch-like, with swollen hips and feminine breasts. According to some interpreters these somatic features reflect a glandular disorder. Other scholars believe that they are a deliberate artistic stylization, so that the appearance of androgyny may convey a universal concept of the office of kingship, uniting the male and the female so as to constitute an appropriate counterpart of the universal god Aten he introduced. Scenes of Akhenaten caressing his son-in-law Smenkhkare have been interpreted, doubtfully, as indicating a homosexual relation between the two.”
ELLIS, HAVELOCK
“Pioneering British writer on sexual psychology. Descended from a family with many generations of seafarers, Henry Havelock Ellis was named after a distinguished soldier who was the hero of the Indian Mutiny. Early in life he sailed twice around the world and spent some years in Australia. In boarding school he had some unpleasant experiences suggesting a passive element in his character, and his attachments to women were often more friendships than erotic liaisons. At the age of 32 he married Edith Lees, a lesbian; after the first year of their marriage all sexual relations ceased, and both went on to a series of affairs with women. By nature an autodidact, Ellis obtained in 1889 only a licentiate in Medicine, Surgery, and Midwifery from the Society of Apothecaries – a somewhat inferior degree that always embarrassed him. More interested in his literary studies than in the practice of medicine, he nevertheless collected case histories mainly by correspondence, as his autobiography makes no mention of clinical practice.”
ERA DE AQUARIUS: “In the atmosphere that prevailed after the disgrace of Oscar Wilde (May 1895), publication in England was problematic, but under doubtful auspices the English edition was released in November 1897.”
“Sexual Inversion was the first book in English to treat homosexuality as neither disease nor crime, and if he dismissed the current notion that it was a species of <degeneracy> (in the biological sense), he also maintained that it was inborn and unmodifiable – a view that he never renounced. His book, couched in simple language, urged public toleration for what was then regarded as unnatural and criminal to the highest degree. To a readership conditioned from childhood to regard homosexual behavior with disgust and abhorrence, the book was beyond the limits of comprehension, and a radical publisher and bookseller named George Bedborough was duly prosecuted for issuing <a certain lewd wicked bawdy scandalous and obscene libel>” “The book was to appear in two later editions as the second volume of Ellis’ Studies in the Psychology of Sex, which in its final format extended to 7 volumes covering the whole of sexual science as it existed in the first three decades of the 20th century.” “Ellis never endorsed the explanations offered by Freud and the psychoanalytic school, so that the third edition of Sexual Inversion (1915), which was supplemented by material drawn from Magnus Hirschfeld’s Die Homosexualität des Mannes und des Weibes, published a year earlier, presented essentially the standpoint of 1904. The next in radical character was the measured discussion of masturbation, which Victorian society had been taught to regard with virtual paranoia as the cause of numberless ills.”
EPHEBOPHILIA
“The term ephebophilia seems to have been coined by Magnus Hirschfeld in his Wesen der Liebe (1906)”
ANTI-AQUILINO (BANQUETE): “those with bearded faces who had outgrown the stage at which they were appropriate as the younger partners in pederasty, but not yet old enough to marry: the prime age for military service. The ancient Greek age of puberty was likely in the mid-teens rather than the younger ages typical of contemporary Western society.”
“In other societies, ephebes are legally on a par with younger children, but in practice sexual activities with them are not as harshly repressed as with the younger group.”
“The combination of heightened sexual energy with a lack of heterosexual outlets (owing to marriage ages in the twenties and restrictions on pre-marital opportunities) and low incomes (characteristic of males still in school, military service, or just beginning to acquire work experience) has in many societies made heterosexual ephebes more available for trade (one-sided) relationships with homosexuals than any other group of heterosexual males.
For many ephebophiles, the naïveté of ephebes is a source of attraction, their enthusiasm for new experiences (including sexual and romantic involvements) contrasted with what is perceived to be the more jaded and skeptical attitudes of other adults.”
“The ancient Greeks acknowledged this trait with the term philephebos (fond of young men) and philoboupais (one who is fond of over-matured boys, <bull-boys> or <husky young men>), but generally slighted it in favor of the pederastic preference. Nevertheless, the athletic games of which the Greeks were so fond featured nude ephebes, the size of whose members received public acclaim, and the victors basked in adulation; Pindar wrote odes to them.”
“In the 20th century, the dominance of the androphile model of male homosexuality has tended to subsume, appropriate, and obscure the ephebophile current, and to consider it as a mode of adult-adult relationships rather than as a distinctive type of preference.”
EPICUREANISM
“Knowledge of Epicureanism, the classical rival of Stoicism, is fragmentary because Christians, disliking its atheistic materialism, belief in the accidental existence of the cosmos, and ethical libertarianism, either failed to copy or actually destroyed the detested works. Of all the numerous works composed in antiquity, only Lucretius’ philosophical poem De rerum natura survives intact. Diogenes Laertius reported that Epicurus wrote more than anyone else, including 37 books On Nature. A typical maxim: <We see that pleasure is the beginning and end of living happily>.
Epicurus (341-270 BC), the founder of the school, served as an ephebe in Athens at 18 and then studied at the Academy, a fellow classmate of Menander, when Aristotle was absent in Chalcis. Having taught abroad, where he combatted the atomist philosophy of Democritus, he returned to Athens and bought his house with a garden in 307-6. There he taught until his death, allowing women and slaves to participate in his lessons – to the shock of traditionalists. Only a few lines of his works survive. Apparently he likened sexual object choice, whether of women or boys, to food preferences – a parallel that often recurred in later times. His beloved Metrodorus predeceased him.
[O LEITMOTIF INCONSCIENTE DO BLOG] The Epicurean school, consisting of scholars who secluded themselves from society in Epicurus’ garden, lived modestly or even austerely. Stoics, however, libeled the secretive Epicureans because of their professed hedonism, accusing them of profligacy of every kind despite the fact that Epicurus felt that pleasure could be attained only in restraint of some pursuits that in the long run bring more pain than the temporary pleasure they seem to offer. Natural pleasures are easily satisfied, others being unnecessary. The ideal was freedom from destiny by satisfying desire and avoiding the pain of desires too difficult or impossible to satisfy. By freeing man from fear of gods and an afterlife and by teaching him to avoid competition in politics and business it liberates him from emotional turmoil. Friendship was extremely important to Epicureans.”
“Lucretius (ca. 94-55 BC) seems not to have added any ideas to those taught by Epicurus himself. But others, like the fabulously rich general Lucullus, whose banquets became proverbial, excused their gross sensuality by references to Epicurus’ maxims. Julius Caesar proclaimed himself an Epicurean. Under the Empire Stoicism vanquished its rival and vied with Christianity, which when triumphant anathematized Epicureanism.”
“the Soviet Communists, who naturally ranked Epicurus above Plato as the greatest philosopher of antiquity.” ???
“Gassendi (1592-1655) [neo-epicurean] exerted enormous influence on both Newton and Leibniz.”
FAGGOT
“One of the most persistent myths that have gained a foot-hold in the gay movement is the belief that faggot derives from the basic meaning of <bundle of sticks used to light a fire>, with the historical commentary that when witches were burned at the stake, <only presumed male homosexuals were considered low enough to help kindle the fires>.
The English word has in fact three forms: faggot, attested by the Oxford English Dictionary from circa 1300; fadge, attested from 1588; and faggald, which the Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue first records from 1375. The first and second forms have the additional meaning <fat, slovenly woman> which according to the English Dialect Dictionary survived into the 19th century in the folk speech of England.
The homosexual sense of the term, unknown in England itself, appears for the first time in America in a vocabulary of criminal slang printed in Portland, Oregon in 1914, with the example <All the fagots (sissies) will be dressed in drag at the ball tonight>. The apocopated (clipped) form fag then arose by virtue of the tendency of American colloquial speech to create words of one syllable; the first quotation is from the book by Neis Anderson, The Hobo (1923): <Fairies or Fags are men or boys who exploit sex for profit.> The short form thus also has no connection with British fag as attested from the 19th century (for example, in the novel Tom Brown’s Schooldays) in the sense of <public school boy who performs menial tasks for an upper-classman>.
In American slang faggot/fag usurped the semantic role of bugger in British usage, with its connotations of extreme hostility and contempt bordering on death wishes. In more recent decades it has become the term of abuse par excellence in the mouths of heterosexuals, often just as an insult aimed at another male’s alleged want of masculinity or courage, rather than implying a sexual role or orientation.
The ultimate origin of the word is a Germanic term represented by the Norwegian dialect words fagg, <bundle, heap>, alongside bagge, <obese, clumsy creature> (chiefly of animals). From the latter are derived such Romance words as French bagasse and ltalian bagascia, <prostitute>, whence the parallel derivative bagascione whose meaning matches that of American English faggot/fag, while Catalan bagassejar signifies to faggot, <to frequent the company of loose women>.
The final proof that faggot cannot have originated in the burning of witches at the stake is that in English law both witchcraft and buggery were punishable by hanging, and that in the reign of the homosexual monarch James I the execution of heretics came to an end, so that by the time American English gave the word its new meaning there cannot have been in the popular mind even the faintest remnant of the complex of ideas credited to the term in the contemporary myth. It is purely and simply an Americanism of the 20th century.
Given the fact that the term faggot cannot refer to burning at the stake, why does the myth continue to enjoy popularity in the gay movement? On the conscious level it serves as a device with which to attack the medieval church, by extension Christianity in toto, and finally all authority. On another level, it may linger as a <myth of origins>, a kind of collective masochistic ritual that willingly identifies the homosexual as victim.”
FASCISM
“The term fascism derives from fasces, the bundles of rods carried by the lictors of ancient Rome to symbolize the unity of classes in the Republic. Fascism is the authoritarian movement that arose in Italy in the wake of World War I. Although Hitler admired its founder Mussolini and imitated him at first – the term Führer is modeled on Duce – one cannot simply equate his more radical National Socialist movement with the Italian phenomenon, as writers of the left are prone to do.”
“Not essentially racist like Nazism or anti-bourgeois like Marxism, Italian fascism, with its corporative binding of workers and employers, has been less consistently hostile to homosexuals.”
“Mussolini also argued in a discussion of a draft penal code in 1930 that because Italians, being virile, were not homosexuals, Italy needed no law banning homosexual acts, which he believed only degenerate foreigners to practice. A ban would only frighten such tourists away, and Italy needed the money they spent to improve its balance of payments and shore up its sagging economy. Napoléon had promulgated his code, which did not penalize homosexual acts between consenting adults, in northern Italy in 1810, and thus decriminalized sodomy. It had already been decriminalized in Tuscany by Grand Duke Leopold, the enlightened brother of Joseph II. The Albertine Code of 1837 for Piedmont-Sardinia was extended to all its dominions after the House of Savoy created a united Kingdom of Italy, a task completed in 1870. Pervasive was the influence of the jurist MarquisCesare Beccaria, who argued against cruel and unusual punishments and against all offenses motivated by religious superstition and fanaticism.
Thus Italy with its age-old <Mediterranean homosexuality> in which women were protected, almost secluded – upper-class girls at least in the South being accompanied in public by dueñas –, had like other Latin countries allowed female prostitution and closed its eyes to homosexuality. As such it had became the playground par excellence during the grand tour of the English milords, and also the refuge of exiles and émigrés from the criminal sanctions of the Anglo-American common law and the Prussian code. The Prussian Code was extended in 1871-72 to the North and then South German territories incorporated in the Reich, including ones where the Code Napoleon had prevailed in the early part of the century. Byron and John Addington Symonds took refuge in Italy, as William Beckford did in Portugal and Oscar Wilde in Paris. Friedrich Alfred Krupp’s playground was in Capri, Thomas Mann’s in Venice, and Count Adelswárd Fersen’s also in Capri.”
“Personally, Mussolini was somewhat of a sexual acrobat, in that he had a succession of mistresses and often took time out in the office to have sex with one or another of his secretaries.”
“Believing in military strength through numbers, Mussolini did more than Hitler to subsidize parents of numerous progeny, thus hoping to increase Italy’s population from 40 to 60 million.”
“However, after he formed the Rome-Berlin Axis with Hitler in 1936, Mussolini began, under Nazi influence, to persecute homosexuals and to promulgate anti-Semitic decrees in 1938 and 1939, though these were laxly enforced, and permitted exceptions, such as veterans of World War I.”
“Oppressing homosexuals more than Jews, Mussolini’s regime rounded up and imprisoned a substantial number, a procedure poignantly depicted in Ettore Scola’s excellent film A Special Day (1977).” “Even exclusive homosexuals, if they were not unlucky, survived fascism unscathed.”
“Admiral Horthy seized control of Hungary from the communist Bela Kun in 1920 and as Regent unleashed a <White Terror> largely directed against Jews, two years before Mussolini marched on Rome with his black-shirts.”
“Fascists were less consistent and more divided among themselves than even communists or Nazis. After all, they had no sacred text like Das Kapital or Mein Kampf, and further were not ruling only a single powerful country.” “Czechoslovakia, the only democracy in Central Europe to survive this period, simply continued the Austrian penal code of 1852 that penalized both male and female homosexuality.”
“The great homosexual poet Federico García Lorca was shot by a death squad near Granada in 1936; it is said that they fired the bullets through his backside to <make the punishment fit the crime>.” “More than Mussolini, Franco resisted the theories and pressures of Hitler, whom he regarded as a despicable (and perhaps deranged) upstart. It has been argued that Franco was not a fascist at all and that he actually maintained a pro-Jewish policy, granting asylum to refugees from Nazi-occupied Europe and attempting to protect Sephardic Jews in the Balkan countries. In his last years he in fact liberalized Spain to a certain extent, allowing among other things a resurgence of gay bars, baths, and culture even before the accession of King Juan Carlos upon his death in 1975. Today Spain is one of the freest countries in Europe.”
“Naturally Latins, like Slavs, being considered inferior peoples by Hitler, did not in general espouse racism (Hitler had to make the Japanese honorary Aryans to ally with them in the Tripartite Pact of 1937), so they had no reason to think of homosexuals in his terms.”
FASCIST PERVERSION, BELIEF IN
“Fascism and National Socialism (Nazism) were originally distinct political systems, but their eventual international ties (the <Rome-Berlin axis>) led to the use of <fascist> as an umbrella term¹ by Communist writers anxious to avoid the implication that <National Socialism> was a type of socialism. Neither in Italy nor in Spain did the right-authoritarian political movements have a homosexual component. Rather it was in Weimar Germany that the right-wing paramilitary groups which constituted the nucleus of the later National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP) attracted a considerable number of homosexuals whose erotic leanings overlapped with the male bonding of the party. This strong male bonding, in the later judgment of their own leaders, gave the Nazis a crucial advantage in their victory over the rival Social Democratic and communist formations in the early 1930s.
The most celebrated of the homosexuals in the Nazi Party of the 1920s was Ernst Rohm, whose sexual proclivities were openly denounced by left-wing propagandists, but this did not deprive him of Hitler’s confidence until the putsch of June 30, 1934, in which he and many of his homosexual comrades in arms were massacred.”
¹ Discordo, mas segue o jogo.
“theorists such as Wilhelm Reich who were opposed to homosexuality [?] could claim that the right-wing youth were <becoming more homosexual>. The victory of National Socialism at the beginning of 1933 then reinforced Communist and émigré propagandists in their resort to <fascist perversion> as a rhetorical device with which they could abuse and vilify the regime that had defeated and exiled them – and which they hoped would be transient and unstable.
In particular, the statute by which Stalin restored the criminal sanctions against homosexuality that had been omitted from the penal codes of 1922 and 1926 was officially titled the <Law of March 7, 1934> – a pointed allusion to the anniversary of the National Socialist consolidation of power one year earlier.”
“In the United States Maoists charged that the gay liberation movement of 1969 and the years following was an example of <bourgeois décadance> that would vanish once the triumph of socialism was achieved. “
Samuel Igra, Germany’s National Vice, London: Quality Press, 1945.
FILM
“Adolescent alienation was the theme of Rebel without a Cause (1955), in which, however, the delicate Sal Mineo character dies so that James Dean can be united with Natalie Wood.”
“In the book Midnight Express the hero admitted to a gay love affair in prison, but in the movie version (1978) he rejects a handsome fellow inmate’s advances.”
“Screen biographies of gay people have had similar fates. Michelangelo and Cole Porter appear as joyful heterosexuals; Oscar Wilde could not be sanitized, to be sure, but he was presented in a <tasteful> manner (3 British versions, 2 in 1960, one in 1984). Recent screen biographies have been better; the documentary on the painter Paul Cadmus (1980) is open without being sensational; Prick Up Your Ears, on the life of Joe Orton, is as frank as one can wish, though it somehow misses the core of his personality.”
“In The Third Sex (West Germany, 1959) a sophisticated older man has an entourage of teenage boys. Although this film purveys dated ideas of homosexuality, it went farther in explicitness than anything that Hollywood was able to do for over a decade. Federico Fellini’s celebrated La Dolce Vita (1960) is a multifaceted portrait of eternal decadence in chic circles in Rome.”
“One breakthrough came in 1967 when the legendary Marlon Brando portrayed a closeted homosexual army officer in John Huston’sReflections in a Golden Eye, a film which drew a <Condemned> rating from the Catholic Church.” Who gives a fuck (literally)!
“Sunday Bloody Sunday: this film was notable for the shock experienced by straight audiences at a kissing scene between Peter Finch and Murray Head. Perhaps the most notorious of the gay directors was Rainer Werner Fassbinder, whose Fox and His Friends (1975) deals with homosexuality and class struggle. Fassbinder’s last film was his controversial version of a Genet novel, Querelle (1982). The death of Franco created the possibility of a new openness in Spanish culture, including a number of gay films. Influenced by Luis Buñuel, Law of Desire (1986) by Pedro Almodóvar is surely a masterpiece of comic surrealism.”
“Already in the 1920s some major directors were known to be gay, including the German Friedrich W. Murnau and the Russian Sergei Eisenstein.”
“During their lifetimes Charles Laughton and Montgomery Clift had to suffer fag-baiting taunts from colleagues, while Rock Hudson remained largely untouched by public scandal until his death from AIDS in 1985. Tyrone Power and Cary Grant were decloseted after their deaths. The sexuality of others, such as Errol Flynn and James Dean, remains the subject of argument. In Germany the stage actor and film director Gustav Grundgens managed to work through the Nazi period, even though his homosexuality was known to the regime.”
“In 1969, however, hardcore porno arrived, apparently to stay. Some 50 theatres across the United States specialized in the genre, and where the authorities were willing to turn a blind eye, sexual acts took place there, stimulated by the films.”
“Much of the early production was forgettable, but in 1971, in Boys in the Sand starring Casey Donovan (Cal Culver), the director-producer Wakefield Poole achieved a rare blend of sexual explicitness and cinematographic values.”
“In the later 80s AIDS began to devastate porno-industry workers, gay and straight, and safe sex procedures became more rigorous on the set (it should be noted, however, that long before AIDS, by strict convention, pornographic film ejaculations were always conducted outside the body, so as to be graphically visible; hence film sex was always basically <safe sex>).”
PROVAVELMENTE ULTRAPASSADO: “Lesbian porno exists only as scenes within films addressed to heterosexual males, their being, thus far, no market for full-length lesbian films of this nature. A number of independent lesbian film-makers have made candid motion pictures about lesbian life, but they are not pornographic.”
Carel Rowe, The Baudelairean Cinema: A Trend Within the American Avant-Garde, Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press, 1982.
FLAUBERT
“From his early years at the lycée onward, he preferred the pen to his father’s scalpel, and single-handedly edited a minor journal, the Colibri, that clumsily but clearly foretold his future talent. In Paris he read Law but never took the degree for reasons of health, and there met Maxime Du Camp, with whom he formed a close friendship. Together they traveled through Brittany and Normandy in 1847, bringing back a volume of reminiscences that was to be published only after Flaubert’s death (Par les champs et par les grèves, 1885). Between October of 1849 and May of 1851 the two traveled in Egypt and Turkey, and there Flaubert had a number of pédérastie experiences which he related in his letters to Louis Bouilhet.”
BORING FASHION: “On his return to France Flaubert shut himself up in his country house at Croisset, near Rouen. Instead of aspiring to self-discovery in the manner of the Romanticists, Flaubert sought to bury his own personality by striving for the goal of art in itself, and he devoted his entire life to the quest for its secrets. His ferocious will to be in his works <like God>, everywhere and nowhere, explains the nerve-wracking effort that went into each of his novels, in which nothing is left to the free flow of inspiration, nothing is asserted without being verified, nothing is described that has not been seen.” “This explains the multiple versions that are periodically uncovered of almost every one of his works, with the sole exception of Madame Bovary (1857), which led to his being tried for offending public decency.”
“In 1857 he traveled to Tunisia to collect material for a historical novel set in Carthage after the First Punic War. Salammbô (1862), abundantly documented, is so rich in sadistic scenes, including one of a mass child-sacrifice, that it horrified some contemporary readers.”
“In 1874 he published La tentation de saint Antoine, a prose poem of great power and imagination. His last work, Bouvard et Pécuchet (issued posthumously in 1881), is an unfinished study in male bonding.”
“Sodomy is a subject of conversation at table. You can deny it at times, but everyone starts ribbing you and you end up spilling the beans. Traveling for our own information and entrusted with a mission by the government, we regarded it as our duty to abandon ourselves to this manner of ejaculation. The occasion has not yet presented itself, but we are looking for one. The Turkish baths are where it is practiced. One rents the bath for 5 fr., including the masseurs, pipe, coffee, and linen, and takes one’s urchin into one of the rooms. – You should know that all the bath attendants are bardaches [homossexuais passivos].”
FOUCAULT
“at the end of his life he surprised the world with 2 successor volumes with a different subject matter: the management of sexuality in ancient Greece and Rome. While completing these books he was already gravely ill, a fact that may account for their turgid, sometimes repetitive presentation. In June 1984 Michel Foucault died in Paris of complications resulting from AIDS.”
O CONTINENTE SE ESMIGALHA: “Discontent with the systems of Marx and Freud and their contentious followers had nonetheless left an appetite for new <mega-theories>, which the Anglo-Saxon pragmatic tradition was unable to satisfy.”
“This concept of discontinuity was all the more welcome as the ground had been prepared by an influential American philosopher of science, Thomas Kuhn, whose concept of radical shifts in paradigm had been widely adopted. In vain did Foucault protest toward the end of his life that he was not the philosopher of discontinuity; he is now generally taken to be such.”
“Not since Jean-Paul Sartre had France given the world a thinker of such resonance. Yet Foucault’s work shows a number of key weaknesses. Not gifted with the patience for accumulating detail that since Aristotle has been taken to be a hallmark of the historian’s craft, he often spun elaborate theories from scanty empirical evidence. He also showed a predilection for scatter-gun concepts such as episteme, discourse, difference, and power; in seeking to explain much, these talismans make for fuzziness. Foucauldian language has had a seductive appeal for his followers, but repetition dulls the magic and banalization looms.”
FOURIER
“French Utopian philosopher and sexual radical. Fourier spent much of his life in Lyon, trapped in a business world which he hated with a passion. Disillusioned in childhood by the dishonesty and hypocrisy of the people around him, he gradually formulated an elaborate theory of how totally to transform society in a Utopian world of the future known as Harmony, in which mankind would live in large communes called Phalansteries.
Fourier hid his sexual beliefs from his contemporaries, and it was more than a century after his death before his main erotic work, Le nouveau monde amoureux, was first published. (…) Fourier did not believe that anyone under 16 had any sexual feelings, nor did he understand the psychology of sadism, pedophilia, or rape, so that his sexual theories are not entirely suitable for modem experimentation. (…) He recognized male homosexuals and lesbians as biological categories long before Krafft-Ebing created the modern concept of immutable sexual <perversions>.” “He wrote some fictional episodes in the vein of William Beckford, one of which describes the seduction of a beautiful youth by an older man.”
FRANCE
“French politics and literature have exercised an incalculable influence on other countries, from England to Quebec, from Senegal to Vietnam. Whether justified or not, a reputation for libertine hedonism clings to the country, and especially to its capital, Paris – by far the largest city of northern Europe from the 12th to the 18th centuries (when London surpassed it), making France a barometer of changing sexual mores.”
“The heavy-drinking later Merovingians, descendants of the Frankish king Merovech and his grandson Clovis, who conquered all Gaul, were barbarians who indulged their sensual appetites freely. Lack of control allowed considerable sexual license to continue into the more Christianized Carolingian period (late 8th-9th centuries), and probably to increase during the feudal anarchy that followed the Viking invasions of the 9th and 10th, but in the 11th century the church moved to regulate private conduct according to its own strict canons.”
“The term sodomia, which appears in the last decades of the 12th century [?], covered bestiality, homosexual practices, and <unnatural> heterosexual relations of all kinds.” “Popes organized the Inquisition against them and invoked the bloody Albigensian Crusade which devastated much of Languedoc, homeland of a sensual culture tinged by Moslem influences from the south. The word bougre itself survives to this day as English bugger, which in Great Britain, apart from legal usage, remains a coarse and virtually obscene expression.”
“The guilt of the Templars remains moot to this day; while some may have been involved in homosexual liaisons, the political atmosphere surrounding the investigation and the later controversy made impartial judgment impossible. A persistent fear of sexuality and a pathetic inability to stamp out its proscribed manifestations, even with periodic burning of offenders at the stake and strict regulations within the cloister, plagued medieval society to the end.”
“Henri III was celebrated for his mignons, the favorites drawn from the ranks of the petty nobility – handsome, gorgeously attired and adorned adolescents and magnificent swordsmen ready to sacrifice their lives for their sovereign. Although the king had exhibited homosexual tendencies earlier in life, these became more marked after a stay in Venice in 1574. Yet neither he nor the mignons scorned the opposite sex in their pursuit of pleasure, and there is no absolute proof that any of this circle expressed their desires genitally. Yet a whole literature of pamphlets and lampoons by Protestants and by Catholic extremists, both of whom disapproved of the king’s moderate policy, was inspired by the life of the court of Henri III until his assassination in 1589.”
“Even the entourage of Cardinal Richelieu included the Abbé Boisrobert, patron of the theatre and the arts, and founder of the French Academy, the summit of French intellectual life. His proclivities were so well known that he was nicknamed <the mayor of Sodom>, while the king who occupied the throne, Louis XIII, was surnamed <the chaste> because of his absolute indifference to the fair sex and to his wife Marie de Medici.”
“In his posthumously published novel La religieuse, Denis Diderot indicted convents as hot-houses of lesbianism.”
“The Revolution secured the release (though only for a time) of the imprisoned pansexual writer and thinker, the Marquis D.A.F. de Sade, who carried the transgressive strain in the Enlightenment to the ultimate limits of the imagination.”
“The novels of Jean Genet, a former professional thief, treated male homosexuality with a pornographic frankness and style rich in imagery unparalleled in world literature. Genet enjoyed the patronage of the dominant intellectual of the time, the heterosexual Jean-Paul Sartre, who also wrote about homosexuality in other contexts.”
“Innovations such as a computerized gay bulletin board – the Minitel – reached France, but also the tragic incursion of AIDS (in French, SIDA), spread in no small part from Haiti and the United States.”
FREE-MASONRY
“The fraternal order of Free and Accepted Masons is a male secret society having adherents throughout the world. The order is claimed to have arisen from the English and Scottish fraternities of stone-masons and cathedral builders in the late Middle Ages. The formation of a grand lodge in London in 1717 marked the beginning of the spread of free-masonry on the continent as far east as Poland and Russia. From its obscure origins free-masonry gradually evolved into a political and benevolent society that vigorously promoted the ideology of the Enlightenment, and thus came into sharp and lasting antagonism with the defenders of the Old Régime.”
“The slogan Liberty, Equality, Fraternity immortalized by the French Revolution is said to have begun in the lodges of the Martinist affiliate.”
FREUDIAN CONCEPTS
“Five aspects of Freud’s psychoanalytic work are relevant to homosexuality, though by no means have all of them been fully appreciated in the discussion of the legal and social aspects of the subject. These include: (1) the psychology of sex; (2) the etiology of paranoia; (3) psychoanalytic anthropology; (4) the psychology of religion; and (5) the origins of Judaism and Christianity. In regard to the last two the psychoanalytic profession in the United States has notably shied away from the implications of the founder’s ideas, in no small part because of its accommodation to the norms of American culture, including popular Protestant religiosity.”
“Freud pointed out that the pederast is attracted only to the male youth who has not yet lost his androgynous quality, so that it is the blend of masculine and feminine traits in the boy that arouses and attracts the adult male” “with a narcissistic starting point they seek youthful sexual partners resembling themselves, whom they then love as the mother loved them. He also determined that alleged inverts were not indifferent to female stimuli, but transferred their arousal to male objects.”
“Recent investigations have sought to confirm this insight for paranoia in male subjects only, and in all likelihood it is related not just to the phenomenon of homosexual panic but to the generally higher level of societal anxiety and legal intolerance in regard to male as opposed to female homosexuality. This would also explain why lesbianism is invisible to the unconscious: the collective male psyche experiences no threat from female homosexuality.”
“The outcome of Freud’s explorations in this direction [anthropology] was Totem and Taboo (1913), which despite the break with his Swiss colleague in that year is the most Jungian of all his works.” “While Hellenic civilization could distinguish between father-son and erastes-eromenos relationships, Biblical Judaism could not, and expanded its earlier prohibition of homosexual acts with a father or uncle to a generalized taboo. It is perhaps pertinent that pedophilia (sex with pre-pubertal children), as distinct from pederasty, usually involves members of the same family, not total strangers. Also, extending this mode of thinking, the fascination which some homosexual men have for partners of other races may be owing to the unconscious guilt that still adheres to a sexual relationship with anyone who could be even remotely related to them, which is to say a member of the same ethnic or racial group.” “Totemism and exogamy are the two halves of the familiar Oedipus complex, the attraction to the mother and the death wishes against the rival father.” “Freud then appealed to Robertson Smith’s writings on sacrifice and sacrificial feasts in which the totem is ceremonially slain and eaten, thus reenacting the original deed. The rite is followed by mourning and then by triumphant rejoicing and wild excesses –, the events serve to perpetuate the community and its identity with the ancestor. After thousands of years of religious evolution the totem became a god, and the complicated story of the various religions begins. This work of Freud’s has been condemned by anthropologists and other specialists, yet it may throw considerable light on aspects of Judeo-Christian myth and legend that cluster around the rivalry of the father and his adolescent son – in which the homosexual aggressor is, ostensibly, seeking to destroy the masculinity of his rival by <using him as a woman>.”
“Obsessional neurosis is a pathological counterpart of religion, while religion may be styled a collective obsessional neurosis.”
“From the secondary sources that he had read, Freud surmised that the lawgiver Moses was an Egyptian who had opted for exile after religious counter-revolution had undone the reforms of the first monotheist, Akhenaten. His Egyptian retinue became the Levites, the elite of the new religious community which received its law code, not from him, but from the Midianite priest of a volcanic deity, Jahweh, at the shrine of Kadesh Barnea. This last site, amusingly enough, presumably took its name from the bevy of male and female cult prostitutes who ministered at its shrine. The Biblical Moses is a fusion of the two historic figures.
Freud also, on the basis of a book published by the German Semiticist Ernst Sellin, posited the death of Moses in an uprising caused by his autocratic rule and apodictic pronouncements. The whole notion was based upon a reinterpretation of some passages in the book of Hosea, which because of its early and poetic character, not to speak of the problems of textual transmission, poses enormous difficulties even for the expert.” “Judaism is a religion of the father, Christianity a religion of the son, whose death on the cross and the institution of the eucharist are the last stage in the evolution that began with the slaying and eating of the totem animal by the primal horde.”
“The particular emphasis with which Freud contradicted Magnus Hirschfeld’s notion that homosexuals were a biological third sex led – together with a tendency (not confined to psychoanalysis) to deny the constitutional bases of behavior – to the assertion that homosexuality was purely the result of <fixation> in an infantile stage of sexual development provoked by the action or inaction of the parents. (…) Thus in the popular mind the belief that homosexuality is somehow a failure of psychological development has its underpinning in the Freudian concepts.”
“his legacy has quietly worked in favor of toleration”
FRIENDSHIP, FEMALE ROMANTIC
“When Sarah’s family discovered that she had run off with a woman instead of a man, they were relieved – her reputation would not suffer any irreparable harm (as it would have had her accomplice been male). Her relative Mrs. Tighe observed, <Sarah’s conduct, though it has an appearance of imprudence, is I am sure void of serious impropriety. There were no gentlemen concerned, nor does it appear to be anything more than a scheme of Romantic Friendship.> The English, during the second half of the 18th century, prized sensibility, faithfulness, and devotion in a woman, but forbade her significant contact with the opposite sex before she was betrothed. It was reasoned, apparently, that young women could practice these sentiments on each other so that when they were ready for marriage they would have perfected themselves in those areas. It is doubtful that women viewed their own romantic friendships in such a way, but – if we can place any credence in 18th century English fiction as a true reflection of that society – men did. Because romantic friendship between women served men’s self-interest in their view, it was permitted and even socially encouraged. The attitude of Charlotte Lennox’s hero in Euphemia (1790) is typical. Maria Harley’s uncle chides her for her great love for Euphemia and her obstinate grief when Euphemia leaves for America, and he points out that her fiancé <has reason to be jealous of a friendship that leaves him but second place in Maria’s affection>; but the fiancé responds, <Miss Harley’s sensibility on this occasion is the foundation of all my hopes. From a heart so capable of a sincere attachment, the man who is so happy as to be her choice may expect all the refinements of a delicate passion, with all the permanence of a generous friendship.>”
“The most complete fictional blueprint for conducting a romantic friendship is Sarah Scott’s A Description of Millennium Hall (1762), a novel which went through four editions by 1778.”
“Mrs. Delany’s description of her own first love (in The Autobiography and Correspondence of Mrs. Delany, ed. Sara L. Woolsey) is typical of what numerous autobiographies, diaries, letters, and novels of the period contained. As a young woman, she formed a passionate attachment to a clergyman’s daughter, whom she admired for her <uncommon genius … intrepid spirit … extraordinary understanding, lively imagination, and humane disposition.> They shared <secret talk> and <whispers> together –, they wrote to one another every day, and met in the fields between their fathers’ houses at every opportunity. <We thought that day tedious,> Mrs. Delany wrote years later, <that we did not meet, and had many stolen interviews>. Typical of many youthful romantic friendships, it did not last long (at the age of 17, Mrs. Delany was given in marriage to an old man), but it provided fuel for the imagination which idealized the possibilities of what such a relationship might be like without the impingement of cold marital reality. Because of such girlhood intimacies (which were often cut off in an untimely manner), most women would have understood when those attachments were compared with heterosexual love by the female characters in 18th century novels, and were considered, as Lucy says in William Hayley’s The Young Widow, <infinitely more valuable>. They would have had their own frame of reference when in those novels, women adopted the David and Jonathan story for themselves and swore that they felt for each other (again as Lucy says) <a love passing the Love of Men>, or proclaimed as does Anne Hughes, the author of Henry and Isabella (1788), that such friendships are <more sweet, interesting, and to complete all, lasting, than any other which we can ever hope to possess; and were a just account of anxiety and satisfaction to be made out, would, it is possible, in the eye of rational estimation, far exceed the so-much boasted pleasure of love.>”
“Saint Mery, who recorded his observations of his 1793-1798 journey, was shocked by the <unlimited liberty> which American young ladies seemed to enjoy, and by their ostensible lack of passion toward men. The combination of their independence, heterosexual passionlessness, and intimacy with each other could have meant only one thing to a Frenchman
in the 1790s: that <they are not at all strangers to being willing to seek unnatural pleasures with persons of their own sex>. It is as doubtful that great masses of middle and upper-class young ladies gave themselves up to homosexuality as it is that they gave themselves up to heterosexual intercourse before marriage. But the fiction of the period corroborates that St. Mery saw American women behaving openly as though they were in love with each other. Charles Brockden Brown’s Ormand, for example, suggests that American romantic friends were very much like their English counterparts.”
“But love between women, at least as it was lived in women’s fantasies, was far more consuming than the likes of Casanova could believe. Women dreamed not of erotic escapades but of a blissful life together. In such a life a woman would have choices; she would be in command of her own destiny; she would be an adult relating to another adult in a way that a heterosexual relationship with a virtual stranger (often an old or at least a much older man), arranged by a parent for consideration totally divorced from affection, would not allow her to be. Samuel Richardson permitted Miss Howe to express the yearnings of many a frustrated romantic friend when she remarked to Clarissa, <How charmingly might you and I live together and despise them all>.”
FRIENDSHIP, MALE
“For Plato, friendship is rather part of the philosopher’s quest: a link between the world of the senses in which we live and the eternal world.”
“How could the masculinity of a youth be preserved in a homosexual relationship with an older man? That was the kernel of the problem for the Greeks. For the Romans it was the perennial anxiety that a free citizen might take a passive role in a sexual relationship with a slave. Homosexuality in itself was not the problem for either: it was in the forms that homosexuality might take that the difficulty lay.”
“Homosexuality and friendship: they may well appear at first as two discrete histories, one of society and the other of sexuality. But if one tries to follow their subterranean currents in the Europe of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, one will end by finding oneself drawn into writing about something larger. One will find oneself writing about power and the power not only of judges but of words.”
“Marriage itself was redefined, with implicit consequences for friendship. A society that had observed the tradition of arranged marriages between unequal partners was confronted with a need for change. Under the influence of the middle-class ideology of the 18th century, society now accepted the principle of a marriage founded upon the affinity of equals, upon love rather than family interest. In this sense husband and wife could now be friends, and friendship was no longer invested with an exclusively homo-social character. The decisive shift in this direction occurred in England, where the Industrial Revolution and the ideology of classical liberalism went hand in hand.”
“So Romanticism revived the classical model of friendship for which Hellenic antecedents could always be held up as an ideal by such homosexual admirers of antiquity as Johann Joachim Winckelmann, a thinker who in Goethe’s words <felt himself born for a friendship of this kind> and <became conscious of his true self only under this form of friendship>.”
“While Ernst Röhm could boast, late in 1933, that the homoerotic component in the SA and SS had given the Nazis the crucial edge in their struggle against the Weimar system, homophobic writers could call for the suppression of all forms of overt male homosexuality and the enactment of even more punitive laws – which were in fact adopted in 1935.”
“Certain women feel more comfortable in their dealings with gay men, just because they know that they do not have to be constantly on guard against sexual aggression, but can have close relationships, both social and professional, that attain high levels of creativity and imagination.”
“The use of friend or friendship as an euphemism for the homosexual partner (lover) and the liaison itself persists. Recently the compilers of newspaper obituary columns have taken to describing the lifelong companion of a deceased homosexual as <his friend>, in contexts where a heterosexual would be survived by the spouse and children.” Haha
Edward Carpenter, Ioläus: An Anthology of Friendship (1902)
GAMES, GAY
“Anyone was allowed to compete regardless of race, sex, age, nationality, sexual orientation, religion, or athletic ability. In keeping with the Masters Movement in sports, athletes competed with others in their own age group. The track and field and swimming events were officially sanctioned by their respective national masters programs. Athletes participated, not as representatives of their respective countries, but as individuals on behalf of cities and towns. There were no minimum qualifying standards in any events.”
“The organizers of the Gay Games have experienced considerable legal difficulties. Before the 1982 Gay Games, the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) filed a court action against the organizers of the Gay Games, which were going to be called the Gay Olympic Games. In 1978, the United States Congress passed the Amateur Sports Act which, among other things, granted the USOC exclusive use of the word Olympic. Although the USOC had allowed the Rat Olympics, Police Olympics, and Dog Olympics, it took exception to the term Gay Olympic Games. Two years later, the USOC continued its harassment of the Gay Games and filed suit to recover legal fees in the amount of $96,600.”
GAY
“The word gay (though not its 3 later slang meanings) stems from the Old Provençal gai, <high spirited, mirthful>. A derivation of this term in turn from the Old High German gahi, <impetuous> (cf. modem German jah, <sudden>), though attractive at first sight, seems unlikely. Gai was a favorite expression among the troubadours, who came to speak of their intricate art of poetry as gai saber, <gay knowledge>. Despite assertions to the contrary, none of these uses reveals any particular sexual content. In so far as the word gay or gai has acquired a sexual meaning in Romance languages, as it has very recently, this connotation is entirely owing to the influence of the American homosexual liberation movement as a component of the American popular culture that has swamped the non-Communist world.
Beginning in the 17th century, the English word gay began to connote the conduct of a playboy or dashing man about town, whose behavior was not always strictly moral but not totally depraved either; hence the popularity of such expressions as <gay lothario>, <gay deceiver>, and <gay blade>. Applied to women in the 19th century (or perhaps somewhat before), it came to mean <of loose morals; a prostitute>: <As soon as a woman has ostensibly lost her reputation we, with grim inappositeness, call her gay> (Sunday Times, London, 1868).”
“The expansion of the term to mean homosexual man constitutes a tertiary stage of modification, the sequence being lothario, then female prostitute, then homosexual man.”
“The word (and its equivalents in other European languages) is attested in the sense of <belonging to the demimonde> or <given to illicit sexual pleasures>, even specifically to prostitution, but nowhere with the special homosexual sense that is reinforced by the antonym straight, which in the sense of heterosexual was known exclusively in the gay subculture until quite recently.”
“Although it has not been found in print before 1933 (when it appears in Noel Ersine’s Dictionary of Underworld Slang as gay cat, <a homosexual boy>), it is safe to assume that the usage must have been circulating orally in the United States for a decade or more. (As Jack London explains in The Road of 1907, gay cat originally meant – or so he thought – an apprentice hobo, without reference to sexual orientation.) In 1955 the English journalist Peter Wildblood defined gay as <an American euphemism for homosexual>, at the same time conceding that it had made inroads in Britain. Grammatically, the word is an adjective, and there has been some resistance to the use of gay, gays as nouns, but this opposition seems to be fading.”
“Many lesbian organizations now reject the term gay, restricting it to men, hence the spread of such binary phrases as <gay and lesbian> and <lesbian and gay people>.”
GAY STUDIES
“Karl Heinrich Ulrichs (1825-1895), whose Forschungen zur mannmännhchen Liebe (Researches on Love between Males), published from 1864 to 1870, ranged in an encyclopedic manner over the history, literature, and ethnography of past and present.”
“In England John Addington Symonds may be considered the first gay scholar, since he composed two privately printed works, A Problem in Greek Ethics and A Problem in Modern Ethics, the latter of which introduced to the English-speaking world the recent findings of continental psychiatrists and the new vision of Ulrichs and Walt Whitman. Symonds was also a major contributor to the first edition of Havelock Ellis’ Sexual Inversion (German 1896, English 1897). At the same time the American university president Andrew Dickson White quietly inserted into his 2-volume History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom (1896) a comprehensive analysis and demolition of the Sodom legend. In the same year Marc-André Raffalovich published his Uranisme et unisexualité (Uranism and unisexuality), with copious bibliographical and literary material, some from German authors of the 19th century, which he supplemented at intervals in a series of articles in the Archives d’anthropologie criminelle down to World War I.”
“psychoanalytic biographies of famous homosexuals, a genre initiated by Freud’s philologically rather weak Eine Kindheitserinnerung des Leonardo da Vinci (A Childhood Reminiscence of Leonardo da Vinci; 1910).”
“The interest of geneticists in twin studies led to some papers on the sexual orientation of monozygotic and dizygotic twins, a field pioneered by Franz Kallmann. While certain issues continue to be disputed, the study of monozygotic twin pairs has revealed concordances as marked as those for intelligence and other character traits, albeit with a complexity in the developmental aspect of the personality that earlier thinkers had not fully appreciated.”
“black studies and women’s studies are by their very nature interdisciplinary. In 1976, for example, ONE Institute, the independent Los Angeles homophile education foundation, articulated the subject in the following fields: anthropology, history, psychology, sociology, education, medicine and biology, psychiatry, law and its enforcement, military, religion and ethics, biography and autobiography, literature and the arts, the homophile movement, and transvestism and transsexualism (An Annotated Bibliography of Homosexuality, New York, 1976).”
“In anthropology there is a continuing temptation to ethno-romanticism, that is over-idealizing the exotic culture one is studying, viewing it as natural, non-repressive, organic, and so forth.”
GENET, JEAN
“The homosexuality of Genet’s characters is explicit, and the scenes of love-making attain the limit of physical and psychological detail, recounted in the argot of the French criminal underworld (which largely defies English translation) and in a style once possible only in pornographic novels sold <under the counter>. If the homosexuality of the heroes of Genet’s novels has a strong sado-masochistic component, their love is depicted with honesty and tenderness. The plot construction borders on free association, while the sordid and brutal aspects of male love are not suppressed or denied.” “Since French writing shapes literary trends throughout the world, the influence of Genet on future depictions of homosexual experience is likely to mount.”
GERMANY
“In the Passion of Saint Pelagius composed in Latin by Roswitha (Hrotswith) of Gandersheim, there is the story of the son of the king of Galicia in Spain who, captured by the Moslem invaders, was approached by Abderrahman with offers of the highest honors if he would submit to his pederastic advances but violently refused – at the cost of his life. The Latin poem on Lantfrid and Cobbo relates the love of two men, one homosexual, the other bisexual. A High German version of Solomon and Mololf composed about 1190 makes an allusion to sodomy, while the Eneid of Heinrich von Veldeke has the mother of Lavinia, the daughter of King Latinus of Italy accuse Aeneas of being a notorious sodomite to dissuade her from marrying him. Moriz von Craun, a verse narrative of ca. 1200, makes the emperor Nero the archetype of the mad sodomite, who even wishes to give birth to a child. In his rhymed Flauenbuch (1257), Ulrich von Lichtenstein presents a debate between a knight and a lady, in which the latter accuses men of preferring hunting, drinking, and boy-love to the service of women. About the same time the Austrian poet Der Strieker used references to Sodom and Gomorrah in his negative condemnation.”
“Prussia was the first German state that in 1794 abolished the death penalty for sodomy and replaced it with imprisonment and flogging. After 1810 many states (including Bavaria, Württemberg, and Hannover) followed the model of the Code Napoleon in France and introduced complete impunity for homosexual acts, a policy reversed in 1871 in favor of the anti-homosexual Paragraph 175 of the uniform Imperial Penal Code.”
“In German poetry, however, the homosexual theme was rare before the 19th century. Friendship between men is, to be sure, a frequent subject of poetry (especially in Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock, Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim, Wilhelm Heinse, even in Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen and others), but the amicable feelings depicted in them are clearly demarcated from the longing of pederasts and sodomites, and the boundary between friendship and sexuality is seldom if ever crossed (though possibly in F.W.B. von Ramdohr, Venus Urania, 1798, Part 2, pp. 103ff.)”
“The flowering of a gay movement in the first third of the 20th century was the outstanding feature that set the homosexuals in Germany apart from those in other countries.”
“The campaign for the abolition of Paragraph 175 provoked an enormous literature of books, pamphlets, and articles pro and con, so extensive that by 1914 the criminologist Hans Gross could write that everything that anyone could ever have to say on the subject had by then appeared in print. There was also a profusion of gay and lesbian poetry, short stories, and novels. Such mainstream authors as Hans Henny Jahnn, Klaus Mann, Thomas Mann, Anna Elisabet Weihrauch, and Christa Winsloe also discussed the theme. This cultural efflorescence lent substance to the claim of Weimar Germany to be a land of cultural innovation, though to be sure the Republic had its dark side as well.”
“If until then Germany was probably unique and unparalleled in the world in terms of governmental liberalism and of opportunities for homosexual life, then the same was true in reverse for the Nazi era from 1933 to 1945: at least 10,000 homosexual men, stigmatized with the pink triangle, were confined in German concentration camps under the Holocaust during those 12 years, and many of them were killed.”
“In West Germany after about 1948 conditions returned to what they had been before 1933. Although the Nazi version of Paragraph 175 remained on the books, homosexual organizations, bars, and gay magazines were tolerated in many West German cities and in West Berlin. In East Germany, to be sure, only the milder pre-1933 version of paragraph 175 was in force, but homosexual life was subject to restrictions on the part of the state and the police, so that gay men and lesbians had scarcely any opportunity to organize and express their views freely.”
Richard Plant, The Pink Triangle, New York: Henry Holt, 1986.
GIDE, ANDRÉ
“In 1891 Gide met Oscar Wilde, the flamboyant aesthete, who set about ridding him of his inhibitions – with seductive grace. Gide’s first really striking work of moral <subversion> was Les Nourritures terrestres (The Fruits of the Earth, 1897), a set of lyrical exhortations to a fictional youth, Nathanaël, who is urged to free himself of the Christian sense of sin and cultivate the life of the senses with sincerity and independence. During the political turmoil of the 1930s Gide returned to the same themes and stylistic manners in Les nouvelles nourritures (1935).”
“In 1895 he married his cousin, Madeleine Rondeaux, and suffered an acute conflict between her strict Christian values and his own yearning for self-liberation, together with his awakening homosexual drives. The never-ending battle within himself between the puritan and the pagan, the Biblical and the Nietzschean, caused his intellect to oscillate between two poles that are reflected in his succeeding books. In Les Caves du Vatican (The Vatican Cellars, 1914), the hero, Lafcadio, <lives dangerously> according to the Gidean formula and commits a seemingly senseless murder as a psychologically liberating <gratuitous act>. A further series of short novels have an ironic structure dominated by the viewpoint of a single character, while his major novel, Les Fauxmonnayeurs (The Counterfeiters, 1926) has a Chinese-box like structure meant to reflect the disorder and complexity of real life.”
“Limited in scope as they were, Gide’s four dialogues constituted a remarkable achievement for their time by blending personal experience, the French literary mode of detached presentation of abnormal behavior, the traditional appeal to ancient Greece, and the then quite young science of ethology – the comparative study of the behavior of species lower on the evolutionary scale.”
Gide, Retour de l’U.R.S.S. (Back from the USSR, 1936)
GILGAMESH
“This Mesopotamian figure ranks as the first tragic hero in world literature. The Epic of Gilgamesh has survived in Sumerian, Akkadian, and Hittite versions that go back to the 3rd millennium before our era. Lost from sight until the decipherment of the cuneiform script retrieved the literatures of early Mesopotamia, the epic is a blend of pure adventure, morality, and tragedy. Only the final version, that of Assurbanipal’s library in Nineveh, has survived in virtually complete form, but all the episodes in the cycle existed as separate poems in Sumerian. The setting of the story is the 3rd millennium, and the original language was Sumerian, the Paleoeurasian speech of the first literate civilization of Mesopotamia, which continued like Latin to be copied as a dead language of past culture even after it was displaced by the Eastern Semitic Akkadian.”
“Gilgamesh is announced at the outset as a hero: two-thirds god and one-third man, endowed by the gods with strength, with beauty, with wisdom. His sexual demands upon the people of Uruk are insatiable: <No son is left with his father, for Gilgamesh takes them all . . . His lust leaves no virgin to her lover, neither the warrior’s daughter nor the wife of the noble.> In reply to their complaints Aruru, the goddess of creation, forms Enkidu out of clay. <His body was rough, he had long hair like a woman’s. He was innocent of mankind; he knew not the cultivated land.> To tame the wild man a harlot offers her services, <she made herself naked and welcomed his eagerness, she incited the savage to love and taught him the woman’s art.> At the conclusion, the transforming power of eros has humanized him; the wild animals flee from him, sensing that as a civilized man he is no longer one of them. The metamorphosis from the subhuman and savage to his new self proves strikingly how love is the force behind civilization.”
“Gilgamesh has two dreams with symbolism which presages the homoerotic relationship which the gods have planned for him and the challenger Enkidu. In the Akkadian text there are puns on the words lusru, <ball (of fire), meteorite>, andiezru, <male with curled hair>, the counterpart of the harlot, and on hassinu, <axe>, and assinu, <male prostitute>. Gilgamesh’s superior energy and wisdom set him apart from others and make him lonely; he needs a male companion who can be his intimate and his equal at the same time, while their male bond stimulates and inspires them to action. After a wrestling match between Enkidu and Gilgamesh in which the latter triumphs, the two become comrades. Their erotic drive is not lost, but rather transformed and directed to higher objects; it leads to a homoerotic relationship that entails the rejection of Ishtar, the goddess of love. A liaison of this kind is not contingent on the physical beauty of the lover, it endures until death. Gilgamesh himself abandons his earlier oppressive conduct toward Uruk and comes to behave like a virtuous ruler who pursues the noble goals of fame and immortality through great deeds. But a dream warns Gilgamesh: <The father of the gods has given you kingship (but) everlasting life is not your destiny … Do not abuse this power, deal justly with your servants in the palace.>”
“To obtain the secret of everlasting life he journeys far across the sea to Utnapishtim, who tells him the Babylonian version of the story of the Deluge. On his return he carries with him a flower that has the power of conferring eternal youth, but loses it to a serpent lying beside a pool and so reaches Uruk empty-handed, yet still able to engrave the tale of his journey in stone. Gilgamesh has been transformed by a love that makes him seek not the pleasures of the moment, but virtue, wisdom, and immortality, hence the motif of the epic is that male bonding is a positive ingredient of civilization itself.”
George F. Held, “Parallels between The Gilgamesh Epic and Plato’s Symposium”, Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 42 (1983) (artigo)
GOETHE
BIOGRAFIAS PARTE II & III: “Settling at Weimar under the patronage of the ducal heir and elected to the Privy Council, he became leader in that intellectual center, associating with Wieland, Herder, and later Schiller. His visit to Italy recorded in Italienische Reise and probably involving pederastic adventures inspired him anew as did his intimate friendship with Schiller. Even after he married in 1806 he continued his frequent love affairs with women. His autobiographical Wilhelm Meister, a Bildungsroman or novel of character formation [probably boring…], and the second part of Faust (in 1832), exalted his reputation further, although he was already first in German literature. The non-exhaustive Weimar edition of his works extends to over 130 volumes.”
Knaben hebt ich wohl auch, doch
lieber sind mir die Mädchen,
Hab ich als Mädchen sie sätt, dient
sie als Knabe mir noch.
“If I have had enough of one as a girl, she still serves me as a boy.”
“In the play Egmont (1788) the hero’s enemy Alba is embarrassed by his son’s intense emotional bonding with Egmont. The figure of Mignon, the waif girl in Wilhelm Meister, could be androgynous. In his Travels in Switzerland [DV] he waxed rapturous over the sight of a nude comrade bathing in the lake, and in the West Eastern Divan (1819, enlarged edition, 1827), he used the pretext of being inspired by Persian poetry to allude to the <pure> love which a handsome cupbearer evokes from his master (sec. 9).”
GREECE, ANCIENT
“Paiderasteia, or the love of an adult male for an adolescent boy, was invested with a particular aura of idealism and integrated firmly into the social fabric. The erastes or lover was a free male citizen, often a member of the upper social strata, and the eromenos or beloved was a youth between 12 and 17, occasionally somewhat older. Pedophilia, in the sense of erotic interest in young children, was unknown to the Greeks and the practice never approved by them. An interesting question, however, is what was the average age of puberty for ancient Greek boys? For some men (the philobupais type), the boy remained attractive after the growth of the first beard, for most he was not – exactly as with the modern pederast.”
“It formed part of the process of initiation of the adolescent into the society of adult males, of his apprenticeship in the arts of the hunter and warrior. The attachment of the lover to his boy eroticized the process of learning, making it less arduous and more pleasurable, while reinforcing the bond between the mentor and his pupil.”
“a biological universal – the physical beauty and grace of the adolescent that invest him with an androgynous quality soon lost when he reaches adulthood.”
“The achievements of their own history necessarily rested upon the legacy of 3,000 years of cultural evolution in the Semitic and Hamitic nations. In technology and material culture they – and their successor peoples – never went far beyond the accomplishments of the non-Indo-European civilizations of the East. It was in the realm of theory and philosophy that the Greeks innovated – and created a new model of the state and society, a new conception of truth and justice that were the foundations of Western civilization.”
“Sir Francis Galton calculated in the late 19th century that in the space of 200 years the population of Athens – a mere 45,000 adult male citizens [número controverso] – had produced 14 of the 100 greatest men of all time. This legacy – the <Greek miracle> – owed no small part of its splendor to the pederastic ethos that underlay its educational system and its civic ideal.”
“Marriage and fatherhood were part of the life cycle of duties for which the initiation and training prepared the eromenos. Needless to say, family life did not hinder a male from pursuing boys or frequenting the geisha-like hetairai. Down to the 4th century BC, however, the really intense and reciprocal passion that the modern world calls romantic love was reserved for relationships between males. Only in the Hellenistic period (after 323 BC) was the additional possibility of love between man and wife recognized.”
A INSÂNIA E O RANCOR DO MESTRE: “The misinterpretations have been reinforced by the strictures of the elderly Plato in the Laws, where an element of resentment toward the young and of embitterment at his own failures and disappointments as a teacher seems to have been at work. This text, however it may anticipate later judeo-Christian attitudes and practices, was never typical of Greek thought on the subject. The evidence of the classical authors shows that as late as the early 3rd century of our era the Greeks accepted pederasty non-chalantly as part of the sexual order, without condemnation or apprehension.”
“The Greeks knew nothing of the Book of Leviticus, cared nothing for the injunctions it contained, and scarcely even heard of the religious community for which it was meant down to the beginning of the Hellenistic era, when Judea was incorporated into the empire of Alexander the Great. On the other hand,there is evidence that in the Zoroastrian religion pederasty was ascribed to a demonic inventor and regarded as an inexpiable sin, as a vice of the Georgians, the Caucasian neighbors of the Persians – just as the Israelites identified homosexual practices with the religion of the heathen Canaanites whose land they coveted and invaded. However, the antagonism between the Greeks and the Persians precluded any adoption of the beliefs and customs of the <evil empire> – against which they won their legendary victories. The Greek spirit – of which pederasty was a vital component – stood guard over the cradle of Western civilization against the encroachments of Persian despotism. Only on the eastern periphery of the Hellenic world – where Greeks lived as subject peoples under Persian rule – could the Zoroastrian beliefs gain a foothold.”
“Oral-genital sexuality seems not to have been popular, but this was probably for hygienic reasons specific to the ancient world.”
“The career of Sappho suggests that lesbian relations in ancient Greece took the same pattern, that is to say, they were corophile – between adult women and adolescent girls who were receiving their own initiation into the arts of womanhood. But the paucity of evidence makes it difficult to assay the incidence of the phenomenon, especially as Greek sexual mores were entirely androcentric – everything was seen from the standpoint of the adult male and free citizen. The subordinate status of women and children was taken for granted, and the effeminate man was the object of ridicule if not contempt, as can be seen in the plays of Aristophanes and his older contemporary Cratinus.”
“It is true that the more abstract thinking of the Greeks ultimately recognized the parallel between male and female homosexuality, beginning with a passage in Plato’s Laws (636bc) in which both are stigmatized as <against nature> – a concept which the Semitic mind, incidentally, lacked until it was adopted from the Greek authors translated in the Middle Ages.”
“Toward the end of the 2nd millennium the Mycenean era closed with a series of disasters, both natural catastrophes and wars – of which the Trojan war sung by Homer was an episode. During this period the Dorians invaded Greece, blending with the older stocks. One landmark paper on Greek pederasty, Erich Bethe’s article of 1907, ascribed pederasty to the military culture of the Dorian conquerors, an innovation ostensibly reflected in the greater prominence of the institution among the Dorian city-states of history.”
“The sexual lives of the Greeks were free of ritualistic taboos, but enacted in a context of comrade simplified in the devotion of Achilles and Patroclus, which foreshadowed the pederastic ideal of the Golden Age. The lyric poetry composed in the dawn of Greek literature was rich in allusions to male love, between gods and between mortals.”
“In a mere 4 centuries Greek civilization had matured into a force that intellectually and militarily dominated the world – and laid the foundations not just for Western culture, but for the entire global meta-system of today. What followed was the Hellenistic era, in which Greek thought confronted the traditions of the peoples of the east with whom the colonists in the new cities founded in Egypt and Syria mingled. The emergence of huge bureaucratic monarchies effectively crushed the independence of the city-states, eroding the base of the pederastic institution with its emphasis on civic initiative. The outcome of this period, once Rome had begun its eastward expansion, was Roman civilization as a derivative culture that blended Greek and indigenous elements. Even under Roman rule the position of the Greek language was maintained, and the literary heritage of previous centuries was codified in the form in which, by and large, it has been transmitted to modern scholars and admirers.”
“For nearly 200 years scholars have argued the Homeric question: Did one, two, or many authors create the two great epic poems known as the Illiad and the Odyssey? What were the sources and techniques of composition of the author (or authors)? The current consensus favors a single author utilizing a traditional stock of legends and myths – the final redaction may have taken place as late as 640 BC. A second question arises in connection with these epic poems: Did they recognize homoerotic passion as a theme, or was this an accretion of later times?” “Homer may not have judged the details of their intimacy suitable for epic recitation, but he was not oblivious to a form of affection common to all the warrior societies of the Eastern Mediterranean in antiquity. The peculiar resonance of the Achilles-Patroclus bond probably is rooted in far older Near Eastern epic traditions, such as the liaison between Gilgamesh and Enkidu in the Mesopotamian texts.”
PLATÃO CHATEADÍSSIMO: “The famous Athenian lawgiver Solon was also a poet, and in two surviving fragments (13 and 14) he speaks of pederasty as absolutely normal.”
“Despite the mutilated and fragmentary state in which Sappho’s poetry has been transmitted, she was hailed in antiquity as the <tenth Muse>, and her poetry remains one of the high points of lyric intensity in world literature. In the 19th century philologists tried to reconcile her with the Judeo-Christian tradition by dismissing the lesbian interpretation of her poems as libelous, and misinterpreting or misusing bits of biographical data to make her nothing but the strait-laced mistress of a girls’ finishing school.”
“Anacreon of Teos [Ceos?], who flourished in the mid-6th century, owes his fame to his drinking songs, texts composed for performance at the symposia, which inspired an entire genre of poetry: anacreontic.”
“Herodotus, the <Father of History>, used the data that he gathered on his
extensive travels to point up the relativism of moral norms. Among the phenomena that he reported was the Scythian institution of the Enarees, a shift in gender that puzzled the Greeks, who called it the nousos theleia or <feminine disease>, but can now be identified as akin to the shaman and the berdache/bardache of the sub-Arctic and New World cultures. Profiting from the insights of the pre-Socratic thinkers, Herodotus anticipated the findings of modern anthropology in regard to the role of culture in shaping social norms. The consequence of his relativistic standpoint was to discredit absolutist concepts of <revealed> or <natural> morality and to allow for a pluralist approach to sexual ethics.”
“Thanks to a surviving oration of Aeschines, the Contra Timarchum of 346 BC, we know of the restrictions that Athenian law placed on the homosexual activity of male citizens: the male who put his body in the power of another by prostituting himself incurred atimia or infamy, the gymnasia anathose who had authority over youth were subject to legal control, and a slave could not be the lover of a free youth. There is no evidence for parallel statutes elsewhere, and certainly no indication that homosexual behavior per se was ever the object of legal prohibition, or more stringently regulated than heterosexual, which had its own juridical norms.”
“In the writings of Plato and Xenophon, Socrates basks in a strongly homophile ambiance, as his auditors are exclusively male, even if he was no stranger to heterosexuality and had a wife named Xanthippe who has come down in history as the type of the shrewish wife. His chief disciple, Plato (ca. 429-347 BC), whose thought cannot easily be disentangled from that of his teacher, never married, and left a record of ambivalence toward sexuality and homosexuality in particular that is one of the problematic sides of his thinking. His influence on Western civilization has been incalculable. One of the ironies of history is that the atypical hostility to pederasty in the elderly Plato, probably reflecting both personal resentment and envy and the decline of the institution in the 4th century (while anticipating later <puritan> attitudes), was often received with enthusiasm in later centuries, becoming a Hellenic source of Christian homophobia.” “he inculcated the notion of sexual activity as ignoble and demeaning, which was integrated with the absolute <purity> of biblical Judaic ascetic ideal of complete asexuality which was to have fateful consequences for homosexuals in later centuries. A completely negative approach to pederasty emerges in one of his last works, the Laws, the product of the pessimism of old age disappointed by Athenian democracy and the failure of his ambitions at statecraft in Sicily. In the 1st book Plato calls homosexual acts <against nature> (para physin) because they do not lead to procreation, and in the 8th book (836b-839a) he proposes that homosexual activity can be repressed by law and by constant and unrelenting defamation, likening this procedure to the incest taboo. The designation of homosexual acts as <contrary to nature> found its way into the New Testament in a text that intertwined Judaic myth with Hellenic reasoning, Romans 1:18-32. This passage argues that <the wrath of God is revealed from heaven> in the form of the rain of water that drowned the Watchers and their human paramours and the rain of fire that obliterated the homosexual denizens of Sodom and Gomorrah. Later Christian thinkers were to insist that the morality of sexual acts was coterminous with procreation, and that any non-procreative gratification was <contrary to nature>, but this view never held sway in pagan antiquity, so that Plato himself cannot be charged with the tragic aftermath of this belief and the attempt to impose it upon the entire population by penal sanctions and by ostracism. The attempt of modern Christian historians to prove that Plato’s idiosyncratic later attitude corresponded to the mores of Athenian society, or of Greece as a whole, is unfounded.
Plato was succeeded by the almost equally influential Aristotle (384-322 BC), who sought to correct some of the imbalances in his teacher’s work and bring it more in line with experience.” “In the Nicomachean Ethics (1148b) he undertook to differentiate two types of homosexual inclination, one innate or constitutionally determined (<by nature>) and one acquired from having been sexually abused (<by habit>). He stated categorically that no fault attached to behavior that flowed from the nature of the subject (thereby contradicting Plato’s assertion that homosexuality per se was unnatural), while in the second type some moral fault could be imputed. In the 13th century Thomas Aquinas utilized this passage in arguing that sodomy was unnatural in general, but connatural in some human beings; yet in quoting Aristotle he suppressed the mention of homosexual urges as determined <by nature>, so that Christian theology has never been able to accept the claims of gay activists that their behavior had innate causes. At all events, Aristotle can be cited in favor of the belief that in some forms, at least, homosexuality is inborn and unmodifiable.
The successors of Plato and Aristotle, the Stoics, are sometimes regarded as condemnatory of pederasty, but a closer examination of their texts shows that they approved of boy-love and engaged in it, but counseled their followers to practice it in moderation and with ethical concern for the interests of the younger partner [= Epicureans].”
“the pseudo-Aristotelian Problemata (IV, 26) claims that the propensity to take the passive role in anal intercourse is caused by an accumulation of semen in the rectum that stimulates activity to relieve the tension.”
“pangenesis – the belief that the semen incorporated major parts of the body in microscopic form; yet the belief that the male seed alone determines the formation of the embryo (only in the 19th century was the actual process of fertilization of the ovum observed and analyzed).”
“The Hippocratic treatise On Airs, Waters, and Places touched upon the effeminacy of the Scythians, the so-called nasos theleia, which it ascribed to climate – a view that was to recur in later centuries. The Greek adaptation of late Babylonian astrology created the individual horoscope – which included the factors determining sexual characterology. Such authors as Teucer of Babylon and Claudius Ptolemy of Alexandria named the planets whose conjunctions foretold that an individual would prefer his or her own sex or would be effeminate or viraginous. Because Greek religion and law did not condemn homosexual behavior, it fell into the category of an idiosyncrasy of temperament which the heavenly bodies had ordained, not of a pathological condition that entitled the bearer to reprieve from the severity of the law. Ptolemy taught, for example, that if the influence of Venus is joined to that of Mercury, the individuals affected <become restrained in their relations with women but more passionate for boys> (Tetrabiblos, III, 13). The astrological texts make it abundantly clear that the ancients were familiar with the whole range of sexual preferences – a knowledge that psychiatry was to recoup only in modern times.”
GREECE, MODERN
“The modern Greeks derived their sexual mores, like their music, cuisine, and dress, from their overlords the Turks rather than from ancient Greece. During the long Ottoman domination from the fall of Byzantium in 1453 to 1821 and in Macedonia and Crete until 1911, and in Anatolia and Cyprus even today, the descendants of the Byzantines who did not convert to Islam preserved their language and religion. Orthodox bishops were given wide political authority over their flocks whom they helped the Turks fleece. The black (monastic) clergy were forbidden to marry, and they were often inclined to homosexuality. Greeks, like Armenians, often rose in the hierarchy at the Sublime Porte, sometimes as eunuchs. Also they served as Janissaries in the Ottoman regiments which were taught to revere the Sultan as their father, the regiment as their family, and the barracks as their home. Forbidden to marry, they engaged in sodomy, particularly pederasty, and in such Ottoman vices as opium and bribery. Along with the Armenians, Greeks became the chief merchants of the Empire, especially dominating the relatively backward Balkan provinces where they congregated in the cities and towns as Jews did in the Polish-Lithuanian commonwealth.”
Winckelmann e Byron morreram durante a guerra de independência da Grécia.
GREEK ANTHOLOGY
“The Greek Anthology is another name for the Palatine Anthology preserved in a unique manuscript belonging to the Palatine Library in Heidelberg. It was assembled in the 10th century by the Byzantine scholar Constantine Cephalas on the basis of 3 older collections: (1) the Garland of Meleager, edited at the beginning of the 1st century BC; (2) the Garland of Philippus, which probably dates from the reign of Augustus; and (3) the Cycle of Agathias, collected in the reign of Justinian (527-535) and including only contemporary works. But in addition Cephalas incorporated in his anthology the Musa Puerilis or <Boy-love Muse> of Strato of Sardis, who probably flourished under Hadrian (second quarter of the 2nd century). It is probable that the segregation of the poems on boy-love from the rest of the anthology (with the mistaken inclusion of some heterosexual pieces) reflects the Byzantine attitude, quite different from that of the pagan Meleager who indifferently set the two themes side by side. These poems, assembled in the 12th book of the Anthology (with others scattered elsewhere in the collection), are monuments of the passion of an adult male for an adolescent boy (never another adult, as some modern scholars have suggested; XII, 4 is the most explicit testimony on this matter) that was an integral part of Greek civilization. The verses frankly reveal the mores and values of Greek pederasty, exalting the beauty and charm of the beloved youth, sounding the intensity of the lover’s attachment, and no less skillfully describing the physical practices to which these liaisons led, so that it is not surprising that the complete set of these poems was not published until 1764.”
HANDBALLING
“This sexual practice involves the insertion of one partner’s hand – and sometimes much of the arm – into the rectum of the other. Before attempting such insertion the nails are pared and the hand lubricated. Sometimes alcohol and drags are used by the receptive partner as relaxants. This practice acquired a certain popularity – and notoriety under the name of fistfucking – in a sector of the gay male leather/S&M community in the 1970s. A few lesbians have also reported engaging in it. A medical term, apparently uncommon, has been proposed for handballing: brachiproctic eroticism.
It need scarcely be stressed that handballing is dangerous in all its variations, as puncturing of the rectal lining may lead to infection and even death. Although handballing does not directly expose the passive partner to AIDS or to sexually transmitted diseases, by scratching or scarring the rectal wall it may create tiny portals for the invasion of microbes during a subsequent penetration. With the new emphasis on safe sex in the 1980s, handballing has greatly declined, and it will probably be relegated to history as one of the temporary excesses of the sexual revolution.”
“It may be conjectured that the recent resort to the practice is due to medical knowledge of operations in which the anus is dilated, since the ordinary individual scarcely credits that such enlargement is possible or desirable. In a late Iranian version of the binding and riding of the god of darkness Ahriman by the hero Taxmoruw, the demonic figure breaks loose by means of a trick and swallows the hero; by pretending to be interested in anal intercourse the brother of Taxmoruw manages to insert his arm into Ahriman’s anus and retrieve the body from his belly. The brother’s arm – the one that entered the demon’s anus – becomes silvery white and stinking, and the brother has to exile himself voluntarily so that others will not become polluted. The myth is interesting as linking the forbidden sexual activity with stigmatization and outlawry of the perpetrator. There seems to have been no term for handballing in the Greek language, though siphniazein (from the island of Siphnos) has been defined as to <insert a finger in the anus>. This harmless practice has long been known, and it may have served as a kind of modest precedent.”
HELIOGABALUS / ELAGABALUS
O imperador teria vivido apenas 18 anos – como regente, 4!
“he reigned in a style of luxury and effeminacy unprecedented even in the history of Rome. He sent out agents to comb the city for particularly well-hung partners for his couch, whom he made his advisers and ministers. His life was an endless search for pleasure of every kind, and he had his body depilated so that he could arouse the lusts of the greatest number. His extant portraits on coins suggest a sensual, even African type evolving through late adolescence. The refinements which he innovated in the spheres of culinary pleasure and of sumptuous interior decoration and household furnishing are mentioned by the historians of his reign as having survived him and found emulators among the Roman aristocracy of later times. For what Veblen called <conspicuous consumption> he set a standard probably unequaled until the Islamic middle ages.
His sexual personality cannot be reduced to a mere formula of passive-effeminate homosexuality, although this aspect of his erotic pleasure-seeking is the one stressed by his ancient biographers. He loved the role of Venus at the theatre and the passive role in his encounters with other men, yet he was married several times and even violated a Vestal virgin, but remained childless.”
“As high priest of the Syrian deity Elagabal he sought to elevate the cult of the latter to the sole religion of the Empire, yet he did not persecute the Christians. Family intrigues ultimately cost him the favor of the soldiers who murdered him and his mother on March 11, 222. Unique as he was in the history of eroticism and of luxury, he has inspired writers from the 3rd century biographer Aelius Lampridius in the Scriptores Historiae Augustas through the later treatments of Jean Lombard, Louis Couperus, and Stefan George to Antonin Artaud and Alberto Arbasino.”
HOLOCAUST, GAY
“The genocide of Jews and Gypsies in Nazi-occupied Europe has overshadowed the persecution and murder of male homosexuals, which is only now beginning to be recognized and analyzed from the few surviving documents and memoirs. Regrettably, in the immediate post-war period most of those who wrote about the concentration and extermination camps, and even courts which dealt with the staffs and inmates of the camps, treated those sent there for violating the laws against homosexual offenses as common criminals deserving the punishment meted out to them by the Third Reich. The final insult to the victims of Nazi intolerance was the decision of the Bundesverfassungsgericht (Federal Constitutional Court) in Karlsruhe on May 10, 1957, which not only upheld the constitutionality of the more punitive 1935 version of Paragraph 175 of the Penal Code because it <contained nothing specifically National-Socialist> and homosexual acts <unquestionably offended the moral feelings of the German people>, but even recommended doubling the maximum penalty – from 5 to 10 years. If any other victims of National-Socialism had been rebuffed in this manner by a West German court, there would have been outraged demonstrations around the globe; but this one went unprotested and ignored – above all by the psychiatrists who until recently never missed an opportunity to assert that <homosexuality is a serious disease> – for which ostracism and punishment were the best if not the only therapy. Until the late 1980s homosexuals, along with Gypsies, were denied compensation by the West German authorities for their suffering and losses under the Nazis.”
“Günther (1891-1968), professor of rural sociology and racial science first at Berlin and then at Freiburg im Breisgau, the chief authority on such matters in the Third Reich, held that the genetically inferior elements of the population should be given complete freedom to gratify their sexual urges in any manner that did not lead to reproduction because they would painlessly eliminate themselves from the breeding pool.”
“National-Socialism in Germany, like Marxism-Leninism in Russia, was a conspiracy of the 17th and the 19th centuries against the 18th-century Enlightenment” OK
“Among all modern states for which figures can be compiled, Nazi Germany offers the horrible example of suicides increasing rather than decreasing in wartime.”
HOMER
“Although dramatically dated to Mycenean times, the late 2nd millennium BC, the epics sometimes refer to things that cannot predate 650 or even 570, because interpolations existed in one form or another when 7th century poets cited the epics.”
“It is difficult to detect all interpolations and changes, especially additions of Attic terms as high culture became increasingly centered in Athens, where the Peisistratids in the mid-6th century had the epics recited annually at a festival, and many believe the first texts written well over a century after the latest possible date for Homer’s death. A definitive text resulted only from the efforts of 2nd century editors in Alexandria. These texts became almost sacred to the Greeks, whose education was based on them even until the fall of Constantinople to the Turks in 1453.”
“Homer failed to depict institutionalized pederasty, to which almost all subsequent writers referred, many making it central. Though poets and artists around 600 BC make the earliest unmistakable references to institutionalized pederasty, Homer mentioned Ganymede twice, <the loveliest born of the race of mortals, and therefore the gods caught him away to themselves, to be Zeus’ wine-pourer, for the sake of his beauty, so he might be among the immortals> (Iliad, 20, 233-35) and Zeus’ giving Tros, Ganymede’s father, <the finest of all horses beneath the sun and the daybreak> (Iliad, 5, 265ff.) as compensation for his son. Sir Moses Finley concluded that <the text of the poems offers no directly affirmative evidence at any point; even the two references to the elevation of Ganymede to Olympus speak only of his becoming cup-bearer to Zeus.>Sir Kenneth Dover denied that these passages implied pederasty: <It should not be impossible for us … to imagine that the gods on Olympus, like the souls of men in the Muslim paradise … simply rejoiced in the beauty of their servants as one ingredient of felicity.> However, the Abrahamic religions’ taboo on homosexuality did not exist in Hellenic and Etruscan antiquity. Societies that had the formula <eat, drink, and be merry> held that banquets should fittingly issue in sexual revelry. Anachronisms such as those of Finley and Dover should therefore be dismissed, even though Homer’s allusions to Ganymede may be pederastic interpolations like those ordered by the Peisistratids – successors of Solon, who introduced institutionalized pederasty into Athens – to antedate the cultural prominence of Athens.”
HUMBOLDT
MAGNUM OPUS: Voyage aux regions equinoxiales du nouveau continent (30 vols.!)
Mas não só: Cosmos: Outline of a Physical Description of the World (5 vols.!) (1862)
O FIM DE UMA ERA: “It was the last attempt by a single individual to collect within the pages of a work of his own the totality of human knowledge of the universe; after his time the increasing specialization of the sciences and the sheer accumulation of data made such a venture impossible.” Embora Le Bon seja um respeitável polímata, outrossim.
“Through the accounts of his findings – models for all subsequent undertakings – he made significant contributions to oceanography, meteorology, climatology, and geography, and furthered virtually all the natural sciences of his time; but above all else he was responsible for major advances in the geographical and geological sciences.”
HYDRAULIC METAPHOR
“The idea that sexual energy accumulates in the body until sufficient pressure is generated to require an outlet has over the centuries had considerable appeal. The notion acquires plausibility through observation of the wet dream, which eventually occurs in males if the semen is not evacuated through intercourse or masturbation.”
“The first statement of the doctrine is probably owing to the Roman philosopher-poet Lucretius who says that the semen gradually builds up in the body until it is discharged in any available body (On the Nature of Things, IV, 1.065).”
“As a device for relieving erotic tension, a homosexual outlet stands on the same plane as a heterosexual one. A curious attestation of the hydraulic concept comes from colonial America. In his reflections on an outbreak of <sodomy and buggery> in the Bay Colony, William Bradford (1590-1637) noted: <It may be in this case as it is with water when their streams are stopped or dammed up; when they get passage they flow with more violence and make more noise and disturbance, than when they are suffered to run quietly in their own channels.>”
“Some Victorians defended prostitution as a necessary evil. Without this safety valve, they held, the pent-up desires of men would be inflicted on decent women, whose security depends, ironically, on their <fallen> sisters. The Nazi leader Heinrich Himmler even extended this belief by analogy to hustlers and male homosexuals.”
“Despite its appeal, the metaphor is not unproblematic. The hydraulic idea rests upon materialist reductionism, identifying the accumulation of semen with the strengthening of sexual desire. Yet the two do not necessarily act in concert, as anyone knows who has visited some sexual resort such as a sauna and felt sexual desire far more frequently than the body is able to replenish its supply of semen.”
INCARCERATION MOTIF
“This term refers not to literal incarceration or confinement but to an aspect of gender dysphoria – the idea that a human body can contain, locked within itself, a soul of the other gender. In their adhesion to this self-concept, many pre and post-operative transsexuals unknowingly echo a theme that has an age old, though recondite history.”
“Foreign as this idea is to the rationalistic Jew of the 20th century, and to the Biblical and Talmudic periods of Judaism as well, it is first mentioned by Saadiah Gaon (882-942), the spiritual leader of Babylonian Jewry, who rejected it as an alien doctrine that had found its way into Judaism from the Islamic cultural milieu.”
“The transmigration of a man’s soul into the body of a woman was considered by some Kabbalists a punishment for the commission of heinous sins, such as man’s refusing to give alms or to communicate his own wisdom to others.”
“In the Hollywood film Dog Day Afternoon (1975), which was based upon a real incident in Brooklyn a few years earlier, the character Leon asserts that <My psychiatrist told me I have a female soul trapped in a male body> (…) So a doctrine of medieval Jewish mysticism has entered the folklore of the gay subculture, and thence passed into the mainstream of American popular culture as a metaphor for a profound state of alienation.”
JUNG
“The two thinkers increasingly diverged, particularly after Jung published his own ideas in a book entitled The Psychology of the Unconscious (1912), later renamed Symbols of Transformation. At the first meeting of the International Psychoanalytic Association in Munich in 1913, the rift between Jung and Freud turned to open hostility, and the two never met again. In April 1914 Jung resigned as President of the Association. Between 1913 and 1917 Jung went through a period of deep and intensive self-analysis; he now asserted that he had never been a Freudian, and set about creating his own school, which he dubbed analytical psychology in contrast to psychoanalysis.” Diferentão…
“his Collected Works amount to eighteen volumes.” “He treated not only psychology and psychotherapy, but also religion, mythology, social issues, art and literature, and such occult and mystical themes as alchemy, astrology, telepathy and clairvoyance, yoga, and spiritualism.”
KEYNES
“A polymath [raça resiliente!], Keynes cultivated many interests, from book collecting to probability theory. His real importance, however, stems from the epistemic break he achieved with the classical theory of economics, changing the landscape of that discipline for all time. Keynes was no ivory-tower theorist, and the 30-year boom in Western industrial countries (1945-75) has been called the Age of Keynes.”
“In the Apostles he met his lifelong friends Lytton Strachey and Leonard Woolf. Believing himself ugly, Keynes tended to be shy in the presence of the undergraduates he admired. In 1908, however, he began a serious affair with the painter Duncan Grant, whom he later said to be the only person in whom he found a truly satisfying combination of beauty and intelligence.”
“In 1908, however, he obtained a lecturer-ship in economics at King’s College, and the courses he gave there were the foundation of his later writings in the field. As editor of the Economic Journal he actively promoted new trends in the discipline outside of Cambridge. Yet he did not turn immediately to the core of the subject, as he spent a number of years writing a challenging Treatise on Probability, which was published in 1921.”
ESCASSEZ DE RECURSOS (GAYS) & SEMENTES DO NAZISMO: “Keynes elected to enter the Treasury where, despite the chronic disapproval of the Prime Minister, David Lloyd George, he worked wonders in managing the wartime economy. During this period the homosexual members of Bloomsbury (Keynes included) found their supply of eligible young men cut off, and began to engage in flirtations and even liaisons with women. After the end of the war Keynes spent a frustrating period as an adviser at the Paris peace conference [for British to see!], trying to limit voracious Allied demands for reparations from defeated Germany. Returning to London, he set down his pungent reflections on the event in what became his most widely read book, The Economic Consequences of the Peace (1919), which eroded the resolve of the Allies to enforce the Treaty of Versailles, at least in its financial provisions.
In 1925 Keynes, now famous, married the noted ballerina Lydia Lopokova. He became an adviser to government and business, consolidating his practical knowledge of economic affairs. These experiences contributed to his great book, General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money (1936).”
[PET-ROYAL]TIES: “Economic difficulties after 1975 subjected Keynesian views, which had become orthodoxy, to contemporary reassessment.”
“Surprisingly, in the decades after the conviction of Oscar Wilde, his numerous affairs with young men never caused the slightest legal or even social trouble. This charmed life can be explained only by his combination of extreme personal brilliance, family and professional connections, and remarkable self-confidence.”
KLEIST HEINRICH VON (1777-1811)
“German playwright and short story writer, whose The Broken Pitcher is esteemed as possibly the greatest of (and among the few) German comedies. Overshadowed by his contemporary, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Kleist’s significance came to light only after his suicide at age 34, a secretive joint pact made with a terminally ill female friend.
Kleist’s slim literary production (8 plays and 8 short stories) vividly and violently captures the historical break between Enlightenment rationalism and Romantic mysticism, often framed as either a psychological conflict (Das Käthchen von Heilbronn, Penthesilea) or a political one (Prinz Friedrich von Homburg, Die Hermannsschlacht). A profound sense of the irrational and absurd permeates Kleist’s works. In stories such as Michael Kohlhaas or Earthquake in Chile, individuals stand powerless before arbitrary circumstances. Kleist’s remarkable heroines, who bear uncanny resemblance to Kleist psychologically, act from the unconscious, for example when The Marquise of O. places a newspaper ad in hopes of discovering the gentleman responsible for her pregnant condition, or when Penthesilea’s confusion between love and war leads her, while intending to kiss her lover Achilles, instead to tear him from limb to limb with her bare hands and teeth.”
LAUTRÉAMONT, o Conde que faltava ao Marquês
“Ducasse [nome de batismo] certainly shows more strongly the influence of Baudelaire and Sade than does any other writer. Like Sade, he is rarely studied in universities.”
LAWRENCE, DAVID HERBERT (1885-1930)
“Born in a mining area of Nottinghamshire, Lawrence derived much of the problematic of his work from the tension between his coal-miner father, representing for him the physical and the elemental, and his mother, a former school-teacher, who stood for the world of higher culture, politeness, and civilization. Having attended a 2-year teacher training course in Nottingham (his only higher education), Lawrence wrote two early novels, The White Peacock (1911) and The Ties-passer (1912), while teaching at Croydon. In 1912 he eloped with the German-born Frieda von Richthofen Weekley, and the two led a bohemian life of wandering on the continent until the outbreak of World War I. During this period he wrote and published his first masterpiece, Sons and Lovers (1913), an intensely autobiographical novel [more so?].
“Women in Love(1921) [currently reading!] has, despite the title, an extraordinary emphasis on the male love affair (though it is non-genitally expressed [forçação de barra, i.m.o.]) between the wealthy Gerald Crich and the school-teacher Rupert Birkin. These aspects were further explored in the Prologue to the book [!], which Lawrence withheld from publication.”
LORCA
“In the famous Residencia de Estudiantes, he met and collaborated with such future celebrities as Luis Buñuel and Salvador Dalí, with the latter of whom he had an amorous relationship of several years’ duration.”
“An extensive literature exists concerning the mechanics of and motives for his death, which immediately became an international incident and a symbol of fascist stupidity and anti-intellectualism. Lorca’s leftist sympathies, friends, and relatives would be sufficient to explain his execution, but much evidence suggests that his sexual orientation, activities, and writings were at least as important.”
A CANALHA (ESPERO QUE NÃO CUIDEM DO MEU ESPÓLIO!): “The House of Bernarda Alba, suppressed by his family, in 1945.”
MCCARTHYISM (BOECHATISMO NO BRASIL CONTEMPORÂNEO)
“The political tactics of the United States Senator from Wisconsin Joseph R. McCarthy (1908-1957)(*) have since the 50s been labeled McCarthyism. They consisted in poorly founded but sensationally publicized charges against individuals in government service or public life whom McCarthy accused on the Senate floor of being Communists, security risks, or otherwise disloyal or untrustworthy. Senator McCarthy’s campaign did not spare <sex perverts in government>, and so it made homosexuality an issue in American political life for the first time since the founding of the republic.” Homossexualidade restrita ao Triângulo das Bermudas.
(*) Oxalá nosso expoente morresse tão jovem! (P.S.: Escrito antes de sua inesperada – hoho, que clichê – morte!)
“It is also noteworthy that the danger of blackmail which Magnus Hirschfeld and his Berlin Scientific-Humanitarian Committee had used as an argument for the repeal of Paragraph 175 was now turned against homosexuals to deny them employment in the name of <national security>. This factor and others worked so strongly in McCarthy’s favor that despite bitter opposition he was reelected in 1952 in the Eisenhower landslide that brought the Republican Party back to the White House after 20 years of Democratic rule.
Once the Republicans had become the majority party for a brief time, McCarthy’s tactics became a source of embarrassment to them [huhu, quantas semelhanças…], and in 1954 a campaign was launched against him in the Senate which included the (true) accusation that a young University of Wisconsin graduate employed in his office in 1947 to handle veterans’ affairs had been arrested as a homosexual and then promptly fired, and the (probably false) accusation that McCarthy himself was a homosexual, which Senator Ralph Flanders of Vermont included in his denunciation. However, it was alleged that McCarthy’s marriage in 1953 at the age of 45 was motivated by his need to squelch the rumors of his own sexual deviation; the marriage remained childless, though the couple did adopt a little girl. What is significant in retrospect is that Roy Cohn, a young attorney who was one of McCarthy’s chief aidés [sponsored by him] during his heyday, was a lifelong homosexual who died of AIDS in 1986 [meme Cazuza de direita]. Censured by the Senate in 1954, McCarthy thereafter faded in political importance, and when he died in 1957 no great wave of emotion went through the ranks of either his friends or his enemies.”
“The policy of denying employment to homosexuals on moral grounds and as security risks, however, remained long after McCarthy himself.”
“In France, after André Gide published his negative reflections on his trip to the Soviet Union in 1936-37, he was attacked by his former Communist associates as a pédé (faggot).”
“The sexual aspect of McCarthyism has an ancestry going as far back as Aeschines, Cicero, and the Byzantine Emperor Justinian (r. 527-565), whose laws against sodomites forged the <crime of those to whom no crime could be imputed>, a weapon for political intimidation and blackmail that even the enlightened 20th century has not deprived of its cutting edge.”
PEDOPHILIA
“the term <p(a)edophilia> was first used in English only as recently as 1906, by Havelock Ellis. It had previously appeared as a specific form of sexual pathology in a German article of 1896 by Richard von Krafft-Ebing. Because the term <pedophilia> originated in a medical context and today connotes disease, efforts have been made to replace it. Pederasty is sometimes used as a synonym, or as a term restricted to post-pubescent adolescents, but in the present writers’ view, it should properly be restricted to the Greek custom it originally designated, which, though a form of pedophilia as we understand it, is not congruent with it.” “The earlier average age for puberty within the last century also means that classical texts (and even more recent ones)